The Psychology of Prejudice
The Psychology of Prejudice
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发表时间：
2001-08
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通讯作者：
Todd D. Nelson
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作者：
Todd D. Nelson
1. 刻板印象与偏见研究导论。A.定义刻板印象。利普曼的“刻板印象”。2. 刻板印象：从坏到中性。3. 社会认知定义。4. 文化和个人的刻板印象。5. 刻板印象是一种态度吗？6. 积极和消极的刻板印象。B.定义偏见。1. 偏见是一种消极的影响。2. 偏见是一种态度。3. 偏见是一种“社会情感”。C.刻板印象和偏见之间的联系。D.刻板印象研究的早期观点。测量。2。刻板印象的个体差异。3. 组级别的解释。E.社会认知革命。认知一致性理论。2. 归因理论。F.刻板印象与偏见的社会认知观。分类。2。认知守财奴。3. 有动机的战术家。为什么强调非洲裔美国人/白人群体间的关系？H.总结。刻板印象和偏见的起源和维持。A.刻板印象的形成。1. 分类。2。为什么我们要分类。3. 分类的类型。4. 内群体和外群体。5. 社会学习。a.童年时期的群体间接触。b.价值观在家庭中的传递。c.刻板印象对儿童认知的影响。d.媒体中的刻板印象和偏见。6. 隐式理论。7. 刻板印象的效率。B.刻板印象是如何以及为什么被维持的。1. 选择性地注意与刻板印象相关的信息。2. 次范畴化。虚幻的相关性。4. 动机。C.偏见的起源。1. 社会认同理论。2. 最优独特性理论。3. 代罪羔羊理论。4. 相对剥夺。5. 现实冲突理论。3. d。刻板印象激活与应用中的感觉与思维。A.心情；群体间影响的类型。a.长期的种族影响。b.偶发的种族影响c.偶然影响。2. 积极情绪的影响。3. 消极影响的影响。4. 动机与认知能力缺陷。B.认知。隐含的认知。2. 阈下信息。3. 内隐记忆。4. 隐式的刻板印象。5. 内隐联想测验。对刻板印象的压制。a.思想抑制。b.压制刻板印象。C.未来研究的问题。4. d。偏见型人格：是不是有些人更有可能。感受偏见？A.心理动力学观点。1. 威权主义。2。Character-conditioned偏见。3. 心理动力学方法的问题。B.右翼威权主义。1.选c。承诺与自愿的宗教信仰。2. 外在与内在的宗教倾向。3. 宗教是一种追求。D.需要认知。E.结构需求。F.需要认知封闭。G.社会支配倾向。H.总结。老式偏见vs.现代偏见。A.那些偏执狂都到哪里去了？1. 从卡茨和布拉利（1933）到民权，以及其他。2. 低偏见的人真的低偏见吗？B.现代种族主义。C.象征种族主义。D.厌恶的种族主义。E.当代偏见理论综述。F.刻板印象和偏见的测量。自我报告问卷。Bogus-Pipeline。3. 刻板印象的测量。测量刻板印象。测量偏见。启动和反应时间——真正的衡量标准？有现代偏见这种东西吗？6. 经历的偏见。A.社会耻辱。B.群体识别。C.刻板印象威胁。d .的自尊。1. 否认歧视。2. 自我实现的预言。E.组间互动。交互的动态性。2. 预期。3。群际焦虑。4. Metastereotypes。F.归因歧义。平权法案的矛盾效应。2. 耻辱感的可控性。7.总结；对老年人的歧视。为什么是年龄歧视？（那么其他的“主义”呢？）B.年龄歧视真的存在吗？C.年龄刻板印象：内容和使用。D.积极态度和积极刻板印象。E.伪积极态度的影响。傲慢的语言。2. 傲慢的行为。3. 假积极态度对老年人的影响。帮助行业中的年龄歧视。G.年龄歧视的起源。社会年龄分级。2. 从圣人到重担。3. 现代化。4。理想主义。H.老年歧视的维持。功能视角。2. 冲突。3。自我威胁，自尊和恐惧管理。1 .青少年年龄歧视。关于老年的信念和期望。年轻人对衰老的信念和期望。2. 老年人对老龄化的期望。K.年龄歧视。年龄在社会知觉中的重要作用。M.与老人接触。对代际接触的负面期望。2. 对老年人的消极图式。老龄歧视的跨文化差异。东方vs西方观点。O.未来研究的问题。测量。2。你感觉自己有多老（或多年轻），你就有多老。3. 刻板印象知识还是刻板印象信念？4. 评估偏见态度。8.答案：b。性别歧视。A.性别刻板印象。B.性别刻板印象的测量。C.性别刻板印象的起源。1. 宗教。2。社会学习。3. 文化机构。4. 进化vs.社会角色。5. 权力。D.性别刻板印象的准确性。E.性别歧视的语言。F.性别歧视的幽默。1. 性别歧视的笑话使性别刻板印象永久化。2. 对性别歧视幽默的看法。3. 性别歧视的幽默无害吗？4. 对性别歧视幽默的自动控制反应。G.性别歧视的类型。1. 老式的与现代的性别歧视。2. Neosexism。3。善意与敌意的性别歧视。H.性别歧视对女性的影响。一、性别歧视。1. 距离的行为。2. 工作机会。3. 玻璃天花板。9.答案：b。减少偏见。A.接触假说。奥尔波特的接触假说。2. 接触假说的检验。3. 小矮星彼得重新表述的接触理论。B. Sherif（1961）《强盗洞穴研究：上级目标》。C.罗基奇的“对抗技巧”。D.拼图教室。E.教育、同理心和角色扮演。f .总结。当前减少偏见的方法。功能的方法。2. 规范的影响。3. 自律。H.总结。偏见研究的趋势和未解决的问题。A.对其他群体的偏见。1. 超重的人。2. 对男女同性恋者的态度。3. 残疾的。B.了解群体间关系的动态本质。C.动机和偏见。D.偏见的神经生物学。E.内隐和自动的刻板印象。F.个性化还是刻板印象？这就是问题所在。g .总结。
1. Introduction to the Study of Stereotyping and Prejudice. A. Defining Stereotype. 1. Lippman's "Stereotype". 2. Stereotyping: From bad to neutral. 3. The social-cognitive definition. 4. Cultural and individual stereotypes. 5. Is a stereotype an attitude? 6. Positive vs. negative stereotypes. B. Defining prejudice. 1. Prejudice as negative affect. 2. Prejudice as an attitude. 3. Prejudice as a "social emotion". C. The Link Between Stereotyping and Prejudice. D. Early Perspectives in Stereotyping Research. 1. Measurement. 2. Individual differences in stereotyping. 3. Group-level explanations. E. The Social Cognition Revolution. 1. Cognitive consistency theories. 2. Attribution theory. F. The Social Cognition View of Stereotyping and Prejudice. 1. Categorization. 2. The cognitive miser. 3. The motivated tactician. - G. Why the Emphasis on African-American / White Intergroup Relations? H. Summary. 2. Origin and Maintenance of Stereotypes and Prejudice. A. The formation of stereotypes. 1. Categorization. 2. Why we categorize. 3. Types of categorization. 4. In-groups and out-groups. 5. Social learning. a. Childhood intergroup contact. b. Value transmission in families. c. Influence of stereotypes on cognition in children. d. Stereotypes and prejudice in the media. 6. Implicit theories. 7. The efficiency of stereotypes. B. How and why stereotypes are maintained. 1. Selective attention to stereotype-relevant information. 2. Subcategorization. 3. Illusory correlations. 4. Motivation. C. Origins of prejudice. 1. Social identity theory. 2. Optimal distinctiveness theory. 3. Scapegoat theory. 4. Relative deprivation. 5. Realistic conflict theory. D. Summary. 3. Feeling and Thinking in the Activation and Application of Stereotypes. A. Mood. 1. Types of intergroup affect. a. Chronic racial affect. b. Episodic racial affect. c. Incidental affect. 2. Influence of positive affect. 3. Effects of negative affect. 4. Motivational vs. cognitive capacity deficits. B. Cognition. 1. Implicit cognition. 2. Subliminal messages. 3. Implicit memory. 4. Implicit stereotyping. 5. Implicit Association Test. 6. Stereotype suppression. a. Thought suppression. b. Suppressing stereotypes. C. Issues for Future Research. D. Summary. 4. The Prejudiced Personality: Are some people more likely. to feel prejudice? A. Psychodynamic perspectives. 1. Authoritarianism. 2. Character-conditioned prejudice. 3. Problems with the psychodynamic approach. B. Right-wing authoritarianism. C. Religion. 1. Committed vs. consensual religiousity. 2. Extrinsic vs. intrinsic religious orientation. 3. Religion as quest. D. Need for cognition. E. Need for structure. F. Need for cognitive closure. G. Social dominance orientation. H. Summary. 5. Old-fashioned vs. Modern Prejudice. A. Where have all the bigots gone? 1. From Katz & Braly (1933) to civil rights, and beyond. 2. Are low-prejudiced people really low-prejudiced? B. Modern Racism. C. Symbolic Racism. D. Aversive Racism. E. Summary of Contemporary Theories of Prejudice. F. Measuring Stereotyping and Prejudice. 1. The Self-Report Questionnaire. 2. The Bogus-Pipeline. 3. Measures of Stereotypes. 4. Measuring Stereotyping. 5. Measuring Prejudice. 6. Priming and Reaction times - the true measure? G. Summary: Is There Such A Thing As Modern Prejudice? 6. Experiencing Prejudice. A. Social Stigma. B. Group Identification. C. Stereotype Threat. D. Self-Esteem. 1. Denial of discrimination. 2. Self-fulfilling prophecy. E. Intergroup Interactions. 1. Dynamic nature of interactions. 2. Expectations. 3. Intergroup anxiety. 4. Metastereotypes. F. Attributional Ambiguity. 1. The paradoxical effects of affirmative action. 2. Perceived controllability of the stigma. G. Summary. 7. Ageism. A. Why Ageism? (and what about other "-ism's"?). B. Does Ageism Really Exist? C. Age Stereotypes: Content and Use. D. Positive Attitudes and Positive Stereotypes. E. Effects of Pseudopositive Attitudes. 1. Patronizing language. 2. Patronizing behavior. 3. Effects of pseudopositive attitudes on the elderly. F. Ageism in the Helping Professions. G. Origins of Ageism. 1. Age grading of society. 2. From sage to burden. 3. Modernization. 4. Idealism. H. Maintenance of Ageism. 1. Functional perspective. 2. Conflict. 3. Self-threat, self-esteem, and terror management. I. Juvenile Ageism. J. Beliefs and Expectations About Old Age. 1. Beliefs and expectations of the young about aging. 2. Expectations of the elderly about aging. K. Age Discrimination. L. Prominence of Age as a Variable in Social Perception. M. Contact with the Elderly. 1. Negative expectations about intergenerational contact. 2. Negative schemas about the elderly. N. Cross-Cultural Differences in Ageism. 1. Eastern vs. western views. O. Issues for Future Research. 1. Measurement. 2. You're really as old (or young) as you feel. 3. Stereotype knowledge or stereotype belief? 4. Evaluating prejudiced attitudes. P. Summary. 8. Sexism. A. Gender stereotypes. B. Measurement of gender stereotypes. C. Origin of gender stereotypes. 1. Religion. 2. Social learning. 3. Cultural institutions. 4. Evolution vs. social roles. 5. Power. D. Accuracy of gender stereotypes. E. Sexist language. F. Sexist humor. 1. Sexist jokes perpetuate gender stereotypes. 2. Perceptions of sexist humor. 3. Is sexist humor harmless fun? 4. Automatic and controlled reactions to sexist humor. G. Types of sexism. 1. Old-fashioned vs. modern sexism. 2. Neosexism. 3. Benevolent vs. hostile sexism. H. Effects of sexism on women. I. Gender discrimination. 1. Distancing behavior. 2. Job opportunities. 3. The glass ceiling. J. Summary. 9. Reducing Prejudice. A. The Contact Hypothesis. 1. Allport's contact hypothesis. 2. Tests of the contact hypothesis. 3. Pettigrew's reformulated contact theory. B. Sherif's (1961) Robber's Cave study: The Superordinate Goal. C. The "Confrontation Technique" of Rokeach. D. The Jigsaw Classroom. E. Education, Empathy, and Role-Playing. F. Summary. G. Current Approaches to Prejudice Reduction. 1. Functional approach. 2. Normative influence. 3. Self-regulation. H. Summary. 10. Trends and Unanswered Questions in Prejudice Research. A. Prejudice against other groups. 1. Overweight persons. 2. Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. 3. Physically-challenged. B. Understanding the dynamic nature of intergroup relations. C. Motivation and prejudice. D. The neurobiology of prejudice. E. Implicit and automatic stereotyping. F. To individuate, or stereotype? That IS the question. G. Summary.