Chronic Mixture Toxicity of Pharmaceuticals to Daphnia – The Example of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs

Chronic Mixture Toxicity of Pharmaceuticals to Daphnia – The Example of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
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DOI:
10.1007/978-3-540-74664-5_17
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发表时间:
2008
期刊:
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影响因子:
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通讯作者:
M. Cleuvers
M. Cleuvers
中科院分区:
其他
文献类型:
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作者:
M. Cleuvers

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药物及其代谢物向环境中的释放是一个日益重要的问题。多年来,这种向水生环境的排放量很大,实际上主要是通过污水处理厂的废水和污泥以复杂混合物的形式排放。由于已认识到这种水环境扩散污染的重要性,欧洲药品管理局最近发布了人用药品环境风险评估指南(EMEA 2006)。尽管如此,关于药物残留对水生生物的影响和风险评估的研究数量仍然有限(Henschel等人,1997;巴克豪斯和格里姆,1999; Webb,2001; Cleuvers,2002,2003; Jones等人,2002; Ferrari等人,2003; Schwaiger等人,2004; Triebskorn et al. 2004),特别是关于长期研究。只有极少数研究观察到混合物的影响(Silva等人,2002年; Cleuvers,2004年,2005年)。在检测到的物质中,非甾体抗炎药,包括用作止痛剂的化合物,属于全世界最重要的一类药物,估计年产量为几千吨。例如,在德国,2002年开具了9350万张这些物质的处方,交易额约为15.62亿欧元(施瓦贝和Paffrath,2003年)。此外,其中一些药物是作为“非处方药”(OTC药物)出售的,没有处方,因此实际消费肯定更高。由于这种高施用率以及药物的药代动力学(半衰期、尿和粪便排泄、代谢等),镇痛药和抗炎药在环境中可达到相当高的浓度(高达> 1 µg l-1)(Stumpf等人,1996年; Ternes 1998,2001年; Ternes等人,1998年; Heberer等人,1998,2002年)。有些物质即使在饮用水中也能发现极低剂量的物质(Heberer等人,2001年a)。其他国家也报告了双氯芬酸和布洛芬的发现,例如,瑞士的湖泊和河流(Buser等人,1998年,1999年; Tixier等人,2003年; Tauxe-Wuersch等人,2005年),以及来自英国的(Ashton等人,2004年)、巴西(Stumpf等人,1999年)、西班牙(Farre等人,2001年)、希腊(Heberer等人,2001年a; Koutsouba等人,2003年)和美国(Heberer等人,2001年b)。先前的研究(Cleuvers,2003年、2004年)表明,急性毒性相对较低,使用水蚤获得的半数最大有效浓度(EC 50)值范围为68至166 mg l-1,在藻类试验中为72至626 mg l-1。因此,在本发明中,
The release of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites to the environment is an issue of increasing importance. This emission to the aquatic environment took place in large amounts for many years, in fact mostly as complex mixtures via the effluents of sewage treatment plants and sludge. Because the importance of this diffuse pollution of the aquatic environment has been recognized, the European Medicines Agency has recently published a guideline on the environmental risk assessment of medicinal products for human use (EMEA 2006). Nevertheless, the number of studies dealing with the effects of pharmaceutical residues on aquatic organisms and risk assessment is still limited (Henschel et al. 1997; Backhaus and Grimme 1999; Webb 2001; Cleuvers 2002, 2003; Jones et al. 2002; Ferrari et al. 2003; Schwaiger et al. 2004; Triebskorn et al. 2004), particularly regarding long-term studies. Only very few studies have observed the effects of mixtures (Silva et al. 2002; Cleuvers 2004, 2005). Among the detected substances, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including compounds used as analgesics, belong to one of the most important groups of pharmaceuticals worldwide, with an estimated annual production of several kilotons. In Germany, for example, 93.5 million prescriptions for these substances were written in 2002, with a transaction volume of about 1 562 million Euro (Schwabe and Paffrath 2003). Additionally, some of these drugs are sold as “over the counter”(OTC-drugs) without prescription, so that actual consumption is certainly even higher. As a result of this high application rate as well as the drugs’ pharmacokinetics (half-life, urinary and fecal excretion, metabolism, etc.), analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs can reach considerable (up to> 1 µg l–1) concentrations in the environment (Stumpf et al. 1996; Ternes 1998, 2001; Ternes et al. 1998; Heberer et al. 1998, 2002). Some substances could be found in very low doses even in drinking water (Heberer et al. 2001a). Findings of diclofenac and ibuprofen have also been reported from other countries, for example, from Swiss lakes and rivers (Buser et al. 1998, 1999; Tixier et al. 2003; Tauxe-Wuersch et al. 2005), as well as from the United Kingdom (Ashton et al. 2004), Brazil (Stumpf et al. 1999), Spain (Farre et al. 2001), Greece (Heberer et al. 2001a; Koutsouba et al. 2003), and the United States (Heberer et al. 2001b), to name just a few. Previous studies (Cleuvers 2003, 2004) revealed that acute toxicities were relatively low, with half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) values obtained using Daphnia in the range from 68 to 166 mg l–1 and from 72 to 626 mg l–1 in the algal test. Thus,