Revisiting and Revising the Apprenticeship of Observation.
Revisiting and Revising the Apprenticeship of Observation.
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重新审视和修改观察学徒训练。
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发表时间：
2014
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影响因子：
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通讯作者：
M. Barnes
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文献类型：
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作者：
P. Smagorinsky;M. Barnes
Schempp (1989) 和许多教师教育研究者一样，将 Lortie (1975) 的观察学徒制（人们从在校学生中学到的教学知识）的构建描述为从根本上保守的。在这个概念中，学生主要接触以教师和文本为中心的教学法，这一循环在几代教师中不断重复。坐在教室里可以让人们融入既定的传统，而这些传统又反过来塑造了教师对学校教育应该是什么样子的信念。对于 Schempp 和许多其他教育研究人员来说，通过融入正统学校教育，未来的教师很难想象他们作为学生所经历的替代方案：教师在向学生传授文化遗产课程并评估学生在考试中回忆这些课程的能力方面占据前沿位置（Goodlad，1984）和权威角色。 Lortie (1975) 通过他自己对这一现象的描述提出了这样的解释。他说，学生们将教师视为“前台和中心，就像观众观看戏剧一样”，从而以“直观和模仿”的方式学习教学——通过渗透隐式学习——而不是通过教学方法中的“明确和分析”指导，而这种教学方法可能与通过不加批判的观察所学到的方法不同（第62页）。 Buchman (1987) 将这些传统的“教学方式”描述为“现成的行动和解释方法，不需要测试或分析，同时承诺熟悉、安全的结果”（第 161 页）。这些来自观察学徒期的“默认选项”提供了一套可靠的策略，当教师不确定如何进行教学时可以依靠这些策略。这种观察学徒制的主导概念认为，通过保守的学校教育从社会化到教学的过程是固定的、难以理解的、不受变化影响的。在这项针对学生教学之前的职前教师候选人 (TC) 的研究中，我们发现这些假设是有问题的。与将他们的教师描述为完全独裁相反，我们研究中的教师从保守和进步的教学传统中命名了多种教学模式，反思和批评了过去的教师，并根据很大程度上建构主义的原则投射了自己的教学愿景。为了调查两所研究型大学的三个项目的学生的学徒经历的构建，我们询问了以下问题： 1. 按所参加的项目分开，三个研究项目（西南小学教育、西南中学英语教育、东南中学英语教育）的参与者将他们与教师的积极和消极经历归因于哪些教育领域（学前班/小学、中学、大学）；他们的特征表明正面与负面例子的相对影响的平衡程度如何；最常被用来描述他们与教师的积极和消极经历的学校教育水平有哪些明显的趋势？ 2. 在促使参与者描述他们在 K-16 教育中的观察学徒经历的访谈中，职前教师如何描述他们过去的好老师和坏老师？ 3. 根据他们的观察学徒期，职前教师声称渴望实现什么样的教学理念？理论框架 Lortie (1975) 使用“观察学徒期”一词来描述人们在进入教师教育项目之前作为学生在课堂上度过的数千小时。这些经验向未来的教师表明学校教育应该是什么样子。随着这种普遍的教育文化适应，人们带着对学校行为的根深蒂固的信念和假设进入教学，这些信念和假设在一年左右的时间里很难被取代，因此他们在教师教育课程中接触到进步的教学法。 ……
Schempp (1989), like many researchers of teacher education, characterized Lortie's (1975) construct of the apprenticeship of observation--what people learn about teaching from having been students in school--as fundamentally conservative. In this conception students are exposed largely to teacher-and-text-centered pedagogies, a cycle that repeats itself across generations of teachers. Sitting in classrooms provides socialization into established traditions that in turn frame teachers' beliefs about what schooling should be like. To Schempp and many other educational researchers, by being acculturated into orthodox schooling, prospective teachers have a difficult time imagining alternatives to what they experienced as students: teachers taking a frontal position (Goodlad, 1984) and authoritative role in transmitting to students a cultural heritage curriculum, and assessing students on their ability to recall it for tests. Lortie (1975) invited such interpretation through his own characterization of the phenomenon. Students, he said, see teachers "front stage and center like an audience viewing a play," thus learning about teaching in a manner that is "intuitive and imitative"--learned implicitly through osmosis--rather than through "explicit and analytical" instruction in teaching methods that are presumably different from those learned through uncritical observation (p. 62). Buchman (1987) describes these conventional "folkways of teaching" as "ready-made recipes for action and interpretation that do not require testing or analysis while promising familiar, safe results" (p. 161). These "default options" from one's apprenticeship of observation provide a set of reliable strategies that teachers can fall back on when they are uncertain about how to proceed pedagogically. This predominant conception of the apprenticeship of observation views one's socialization to teaching through conservative schooling as fixed and impenetrable, impervious to change. In this study of preservice teacher candidates (TCs) prior to student teaching, we find that these assumptions are problematic. In contrast to describing their teachers as exclusively authoritarian, the teachers in our study named a variety of teaching models from both the conservative and progressive pedagogical traditions, reflecting on and critiquing teachers from their past and projecting visions of their own teaching according to largely constructivist principles. To investigate the construct of the apprenticeship of observation in the experiences of students from three programs housed in two research universities, we inquired with the following questions: 1. Separated by program attended, to what areas of schooling (Pre-K/elementary, secondary, college) did the participants in the three programs studied (Southwestern Elementary Education, Southwestern Secondary English Education, Southeastern Secondary English Education) attribute their positive and negative experiences with teachers; what balance did their characterizations indicate about the relative influence of positive vs. negative examples; and what trends were evident in the levels of schooling most frequently invoked to characterize their positive and negative experiences with teachers? 2. In interviews prompting participants to describe their apprenticeships of observation in their K-16 education, how did the preservice teachers characterize good and bad teachers from their past? 3. What conceptions of teaching did the preservice teachers claim to aspire toward based on their apprenticeships of observation? Theoretical Framework Lortie (1975) used the term apprenticeship of observation to describe the thousands of hours that people spend in classrooms as students before entering teacher education programs. These experiences suggest to prospective teachers what schooling should properly look like. With this pervasive acculturation to education, people enter teaching with deeply rooted beliefs and assumptions about the conduct of school that are difficult to replace during the year or so that they spend exposed to progressive pedagogies in their teacher education courses. …