A Review of “Learning, Creating, and Using Knowledge: Concept Maps as Facilitative Tools in Schools and Corporation”
A Review of “Learning, Creating, and Using Knowledge: Concept Maps as Facilitative Tools in Schools and Corporation”
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“学习、创造和使用知识：概念图作为学校和企业的辅助工具”综述
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发表时间：
2012
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通讯作者：
R. Paul
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作者：
R. Paul
美国教育体系在各个层面都面临危机。国际经济合作与发展组织（经合组织）的一项研究发现，与来自70个国家的学生相比，美国15岁学生的阅读技能平均排名第15位，科学排名第17位，数学排名第25位或低于平均水平（经合组织，2010年）。同一份报告还显示，美国在学生入学和毕业方面落后（Zeitvogel 2010）。在高等教育的主题上，Richard Arum和Josipa Roksa的学术漂流：大学校园的有限学习（2011年）因为认为大多数大学生在四年多的学校生活中在高阶学习方面几乎没有进步而获得了极大的关注。许多人担心美国的年轻人没有为新的全球经济的需求做好充分的准备，他们将无法与来自中国、印度和其他外国市场的创新竞争。在试图确定造成这些教育困难的责任时，人们指出了许多不同的因素：联邦和州政府缺乏资金;学校管理部门管理不善;“不让一个孩子掉队”和高风险考试;教师和教师工会缺乏培训或根深蒂固;新技术对学生态度和学习能力的影响;将教育视为商品的消费者心态;长期从事科学教育和教育研究的约瑟夫D。诺瓦克认为，问题的根源在于缺乏一个统一的学习理论，作为教育方法论系统改革的基础。在他1998年出版的《学习、创造和使用知识》（Learning，Creating，and Using Knowledge）的修订版中，诺瓦克汇集了大量的实践和理论研究，以支持他的“有意义的学习”概念，作为一种统一的教育理论，可以从根本上改善从幼儿到企业发展的各个层面的学习。他所寻求的改进不仅仅是考试成绩的量化提高，而是人类在学术和商业环境中构建、整合和应用知识的方式的质的变化。在认识到广泛变革所面临的挑战的同时，诺瓦克最终对学习领域全面革命的可能性持乐观态度，这将使个人和公司能够利用人类的创造力并改善人类的状况。诺瓦克的理论基础是大卫奥苏贝尔的“同化学习”理论，该理论认为，当学习者在以前获得的知识和新获得的知识之间进行协商时，就会发生有意义的学习。学习者的这种积极参与并不导致死记硬背，而是构建和重建复杂的认知框架。通过将信息整合到展示概念之间关系的层次结构中，学习者对知识有了更深入的理解;学习过程加快了，因为他或她可以调整这些认知框架，以融入更多的信息和新的复杂程度。反过来，学习者可以更有效和更有创造性地应用他或她的知识。对诺瓦克来说，奥苏贝尔的理论提供了一个强大的基础，在此基础上建立一个全面的教育理论。他扩展了奥苏贝尔的主要认知重点，包括
The U.S. education system faces a crisis at all levels. A study by the international Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) found that, when compared to students from 70 countries, 15-year-olds from the United States averaged 15th in reading skills, 17th in science, and 25th, or below average, in mathematics (OECD 2010). The same report also shows the United States falling behind in student enrollment and graduation (Zeitvogel 2010). On the subject of higher education, Richard Arum and Josipa Roksa’s Academically Adrift: Limited Learning on College Campuses (2011) has garnered significant attention for arguing that most college students make little progress in higher order learning during their four-plus years in school. Many fear that America’s youth are not being adequately prepared for the needs of the new global economy and that they will be unable to compete with the innovations coming from China, India, and other foreign markets. Fingers have been pointed at many different factors in attempts to assign responsibility for these educational difficulties: a lack of funding from federal and state governments; mismanagement by school administrations; No Child Left Behind and high-stakes testing; ill-trained or entrenched teachers and teachers’ unions; the influence of new technology on student attitudes and learning abilities; a consumer mentality that views education as a commodity; a loss of traditional values in education; and the list goes on. According to long-time science educator and educational researcher Joseph D. Novak, the root of the problem is the lack of a unified theory of learning that serves as the basis for systematic reform of educational methodology. In this revised edition of his 1998 Learning, Creating, and Using Knowledge, Novak marshals a significant body of practical and theoretical research to support his concept of “meaningful learning” as a unified theory of education that can radically improve learning on all levels, from early childhood to corporate development. The improvements he seeks are not merely quantitative gains in test scores but qualitative changes in the ways humans construct, integrate, and apply knowledge in academic and business settings. While recognizing the challenges to widespread change, Novak is ultimately optimistic about the possibilities for a full-fledged revolution in learning that will empower individuals and companies to harness human creativity and improve the human condition. Novak bases his ideas on David Ausubel’s “Assimilation Learning” Theory, which holds that meaningful learning occurs when the learner negotiates between knowledge previously gained and newly acquired. This active engagement on the part of the learner results not in the rote memorization of facts but the construction and reconstruction of complex cognitive frameworks. By integrating information into a hierarchical structure that demonstrates the relationship between concepts, the learner develops a deeper understanding of knowledge; the process of learning accelerates as he or she can adapt these cognitive frames to incorporate additional information and new levels of complexity. In turn, the learner can apply his or her knowledge in more effective and more creative ways. For Novak, Ausubel’s theory provides a powerful foundation upon which to build a comprehensive theory of education. He expands Ausubel’s primarily cognitive focus to include