Scaffolding Disciplined Inquiry in Problem-Based Environments
Scaffolding Disciplined Inquiry in Problem-Based Environments
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在基于问题的环境中搭建纪律探究的脚手架
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发表时间：
2005
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通讯作者：
Peggy A. Ertmer
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作者：
Krista D. Simons;Peggy A. Ertmer
基于问题的学习（PBL）已在 K-12 环境中被提倡作为促进理解、整合和保留概念的手段（Gallagher，1997；Gallagher、Sher、Stepien 和 Workman，1995）。通过对问题的分析，学生获得相关知识和解决问题的技能（Barrows & Tamblyn，1980）。然而，实施基于问题的学习给学习者带来了一些挑战，他们可能会在这种陌生的环境中不知所措（Land，2000）。支架被定义为工具、策略或指南，可能是支持 PBL 学习者的一种手段。在这篇综述中，我们提出了一些得到教师、设计师和研究人员认可的脚手架策略。具体来说，支架有潜力通过实现至少三个关键目标来支持学习者的表现：1）发起学生的探究； 2）帮助学习者进行概念整合并消除误解； 3）促进反思性思维。我们论文的主要重点是探索支架如何支持这些目的，并提供一些示例，以帮助研究人员、教学设计者和提倡 PBL 作为有益教学方法的教师。致谢 这项工作得到了 Tech-Know-Build：Indiana Students Building Knowledge with Technology 的部分支持，该项目是 2000-2005 年授予 Crawfordsville 社区学校的技术创新挑战补助金。基于问题的环境中的支架式纪律探究 2 基于问题的环境中的支架式纪律探究 基于问题的学习 基于问题的学习 (PBL) 被提倡作为促进概念理解、整合和保留的一种手段（Gallagher，1997；Gallagher、Sher、Stepien 和 Workman，1995）。 PBL 最初于 20 世纪 70 年代在医学院正式确立，旨在让学生参与类似于实践中遇到的问题解决活动，它将有关问题解决的学习理论与案例研究方法结合起来（Gallagher，1997）。向学生提出嵌入相关且资源丰富的环境中的问题（Hoffman & Ritchie，1997），并承担主要研究人员的角色。他们以小组形式分析问题、考虑可能的解决方案、制定计划并评估结果（Kaufman & Mann，1997）。基于问题的学习模型的范围从提出问题或案例的有限实施到学生与教师或执业专业人员合作定义和研究自己的问题的广泛实施（Barrows，1986；Pierce＆Jones，2002）。无论使用哪种模型，这些方法至少有五个基本特征：1）让学生参与结构不良的问题，2）在学生获得内容相关知识之前向他们介绍问题，3）允许学生协作，4）在整个问题解决过程中支持学生，5）在提出问题解决方案后促进学生反思。我们将在下面更详细地描述每个元素。 PBL 的第一个要素是让学生参与问题，以促进积极的调查和探究（Stepien & Pyke，1997）。一个有效的、激励性的问题必须是适当复杂的、结构不良的和相关的（Duch，2001；Hmelo & Ferrari，1997）。在一个结构不良的问题中，有多种解决方案的途径，以及不止一种解决方案（Barrows，1985；Mason & Mitroff，1981）。其次，学生必须在获得与中心问题相关的所有知识之前就遇到问题，而不是作为教学后的综合活动。通过对问题的分析，学生获得相关知识和解决问题的技能（Barrows & Tamblyn，1980）。这一特征将 PBL 与其他面向问题的环境区分开来（Albanese & Mitchell，1993；Arts、Gijelaers & Segers，2002）。第三，学生必须共同努力，这反映了人们普遍认为基于探究的环境中的合作可以提高学习成果（Qin, Johnson, & Johnson, 1995; Schmidt & Moust, 2000）。在协作解决问题的过程中，学生构建解决方案或解决方案的理论（Blumenfeld、Marx、Soloway 和 Krajcik，1996）。根据范德比尔特大学基于问题的环境中的认知和脚手架纪律探究 3 技术小组，“……合作解决问题的小组增强了生成学习的机会……学生有机会形成探究社区，使他们能够讨论和解释，从而在理解中学习”（1992 年，第 68 页）。 PBL 中协作的主要目标有两个：激活个人在相关领域的先前经验或知识，并通过完善不理解的内容来促进团队应采取的方向的清晰度（Kelson & Distlehorst，2000；Schmidt & Moust，2000；Wilkerson，1996）。第四，讲师或导师在整个问题解决过程中为学生提供支持。 “教练”、“引导者”或“促进者”是隐喻，用于传达 PBL 中教师角色的基本性质，并将其与更传统的教学角色区分开来（Chaves、Lantz 和 Lynch，2001）。讲师模仿专家解决问题的行为（如适用）并监控小组的进展，鼓励积极参与并评论学生的想法（Hmelo & Ferrari，1997；伊利诺伊州数学与科学学院，2002）。此外，教师提供反馈（有时以迭代形式）以加深理解和产品质量（Barron 等人，1998 年；Gallagher，1997 年）。第五，学生在解决问题的过程中参与自我评价和反思。反思帮助学生将新知识与先前的理解联系起来，并理解他们所使用的思维和学习策略（Chaves et al., 2001; Gallagher, 1997; Hmelo & Ferrari, 1997）。目标是帮助学生巩固和加深对概念和技能的理解（Stepien & Pyke，1997）。正如 Hemelo 和 Ferrari 所指出的，“[反思]为学生提供了巩固和抽象所学知识的机会”（第 416 页）。实施基于问题的学习给学习者带来了一些挑战。例如，不熟悉这种背景的学生可能会在承担不同的、更积极的角色时不知所措（Land，2000）。 Herrenkohl 和 Guerra（1998）发现学生经常避免与小组积极互动，而是向老师征求正确答案。因此，新手学生可能需要时间来适应新的、自主的学习环境（Schmidt、Henny 和 de Vries，1992）。在典型的问题导向医学模式中，为每个学生群体配备专家导师，解决师生遇到的一些挑战。这些训练有素的导师的作用是促进学习过程、提供反馈并促进学生的协作（Schmidt & Moust，2000）。因此，学生能够接受专家的指导，但不必依赖一位老师的指导。然而，成功实施 PBL 的一个障碍是“缺乏足够数量的熟练促进者”（Hmelo-Silver，2004 年，第 261 页）。在传统的中小学环境中尤其如此，因为时间和资源限制不允许为每个小组提供专家导师。因此，有必要研究其他支持或支撑学生努力的方式（Hmelo-Silver，2004；Simons & Klein，2004）。在基于问题的环境中搭建纪律探究的脚手架
Problem-based learning (PBL) has been advocated in K-12 contexts as a means to promote understanding, integration, and retention of concepts (Gallagher, 1997; Gallagher, Sher, Stepien, & Workman, 1995). Through analysis of the problem, students acquire both relevant knowledge and problem-solving skills (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). However, implementing problem-based learning presents several challenges to the learner, who may become overwhelmed in this unfamiliar context (Land, 2000). Scaffolds, defined as tools, strategies, or guides, may be one means of supporting learners in PBL. In this review, we present a number of scaffolding strategies endorsed by teachers, designers, and researchers. Specifically, scaffolds have the potential to support learner performance by accomplishing at least three crucial goals: 1) initiating students’ inquiry; 2) aiding learners with concept integration and addressing misconceptions; and 3) promoting reflective thinking. The primary focus of our paper is to explore how scaffolds can serve to support each of these purposes, and to present examples that might assist researchers, instructional designers, and teachers who advocate PBL as a beneficial instructional approach. Acknowledgment This work was partially supported by Tech-Know-Build: Indiana Students Building Knowledge with Technology, a Technology Innovation Challenge Grant awarded to Crawfordsville Community Schools, 2000-2005. Scaffolding Disciplined Inquiry in Problem-Based Environments 2 Scaffolding Disciplined Inquiry in Problem-Based Environments Problem-Based Learning Problem-based learning (PBL) has been advocated as a means to promote understanding, integration, and retention of concepts (Gallagher, 1997; Gallagher, Sher, Stepien, & Workman, 1995). Originally formalized in medical schools in the 1970s to engage students in problem-solving activities similar to those encountered in practice, PBL combines learning theories about problem solving with the case study approach (Gallagher, 1997). Students are presented with problems embedded in relevant, resource-rich contexts (Hoffman & Ritchie, 1997) and assume the role of primary researchers. They work in small groups to analyze the problem, consider possible solutions, develop a plan, and evaluate the outcome (Kaufman & Mann, 1997). Models of problem-based learning range from limited implementations, which present a question or case, to broad implementations, where students define and research their own problems in collaboration with a teacher or practicing professional (Barrows, 1986; Pierce & Jones, 2002). Regardless of which model is used, there are at least five essential characteristics of these approaches: 1) engaging students in an ill-structured problem, 2) introducing students to the problem before they have acquired content-relevant knowledge, 3) allowing students to work collaboratively, 4) supporting students throughout the problemsolving process, and 5) promoting student reflection following the presentation of their solutions to the problem. We describe each of these elements in more detail below. The first element of PBL centers on engaging students in a problem for the purposes of promoting active investigation and inquiry (Stepien & Pyke, 1997). An effective, motivating problem must be appropriately complex, ill-structured, and relevant (Duch, 2001; Hmelo & Ferrari, 1997). Within an ill-structured problem, there are multiple pathways to the solution(s), as well as more than one solution (Barrows, 1985; Mason & Mitroff, 1981). Second, it is essential students encounter the problem before all knowledge relating to the central problem has been acquired, rather than as a post-instruction synthesizing activity. Through analysis of the problem, students acquire both relevant knowledge and problem-solving skills (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). This feature distinguishes PBL from other problem-oriented environments (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993; Arts, Gijelaers & Segers, 2002). Third, students must work together, reflecting the general belief that collaboration in inquiry-based settings can enhance learning outcomes (Qin, Johnson, & Johnson, 1995; Schmidt & Moust, 2000). During collaborative problem solving, students construct theories toward a solution or resolution (Blumenfeld, Marx, Soloway, & Krajcik, 1996). According to the Cognition and Scaffolding Disciplined Inquiry in Problem-Based Environments 3 Technology Group at Vanderbilt, “...cooperative problem-solving groups enhance opportunities for generative learning ... students have the opportunity to form communities of inquiry that allow them to discuss and explain, and hence learn, with understanding” (1992, p. 68). The primary goals of collaboration in PBL are two-fold: to activate individuals’ prior experience or knowledge in related areas, and to promote clarity regarding the direction(s) the group should take through refining what is not understood (Kelson & Distlehorst, 2000; Schmidt & Moust, 2000; Wilkerson, 1996). Fourth, the instructor or tutor supports students throughout the problem-solving process. “Coach,” “guide,” or “facilitator” are metaphors used to convey the fundamental nature of the instructor’s role in PBL, and to differentiate it from the more traditional didactic role (Chaves, Lantz, & Lynch, 2001). The instructor models expert problem-solving behavior (where applicable) and monitors the groups’ progress, encouraging active participation and commenting on students’ ideas (Hmelo & Ferrari, 1997; Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy, 2002). Additionally, instructors provide feedback (at time, in iterative forms) to deepen understanding and product quality (Barron et al., 1998; Gallagher, 1997). Fifth, students participate in self-evaluation and reflection following the problem-solving process. Reflection helps students relate new knowledge to prior understanding, and understand the thinking and learning strategies they have used (Chaves et al., 2001; Gallagher, 1997; Hmelo & Ferrari, 1997). The goal is to help students solidify and deepen their understanding of the concepts and skills (Stepien & Pyke, 1997). As noted by Hemelo and Ferrari, “[Reflection] provides an opportunity for students to consolidate and abstract what they have learned” (p. 416). Implementing problem-based learning presents several challenges to the learner. For example, students unfamiliar with this context may become overwhelmed in assuming a different, more active role (Land, 2000). Herrenkohl and Guerra (1998) found students often refrain from active interaction with their groups, and instead solicit correct answers from the teacher. Thus, it may take novice students time to adjust to the new, self-directed learning environment (Schmidt, Henny, & de Vries, 1992). In the typical problem-based medical model, expert tutors are provided for each student group to address some of the challenges encountered by teachers and students. The role of these trained tutors is to facilitate the learning process, provide feedback, and promote students’ collaboration (Schmidt & Moust, 2000). As a result, students are able to receive expert guidance, but do not have to depend on one teacher for this guidance. However, one barrier to successful PBL implementation is the “lack of a sufficient number of skilled facilitators” (Hmelo-Silver, 2004, p. 261). This is especially true within traditional primary and secondary school environments where time and resource constraints disallow providing expert tutors for each group. Thus, it becomes necessary to examine other means of supporting, or scaffolding, students’ efforts (Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Simons & Klein, 2004). Scaffolding Disciplined Inquiry in Problem-Based Environments