Teacher Planning: A Literature Review
Teacher Planning: A Literature Review
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教师规划：文献综述
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发表时间：
2000
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通讯作者：
L. Warren
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作者：
L. Warren
大多数教师都会同意计划是有效教学的重要组成部分。在教师能够有效地进行课堂教学之前，他们必须决定如何以最高效和最有效的方式向学生展示课程。但究竟什么是教师规划？它涉及什么？本文献综述考察了记录教师规划的研究，并试图对主要发现进行全面概述。审查首先定义“教师规划”。 Clark 和 Peterson (1986) 给出了教师规划的两个定义。首先，他们指出，规划是一组基本的心理过程，在这个过程中，一个人想象未来，盘点手段和目的，并构建一个框架来指导他或她未来的行动。该定义在很大程度上借鉴了认知心理学，将规划呈现为一个概念框架。其次，克拉克和彼得森指出，计划包括“教师在说他们正在计划时所做的事情”（第260页）。第二个定义是更广泛接受的规划定义，因为它对教师规划的研究采用描述性方法。关于教师规划的研究很少，几乎所有的研究都是自 1970 年以来发表的。然而，在 20 世纪 70 年代之前就已经出现了与教师规划相关的指导方针和方法，例如备受推崇的 Tyler (1950) 模型，该模型已在各级教师的规划中得到广泛规定。然而，在 20 世纪 70 年代之前，很少有研究描述或解释教师在制定计划时实际上做了什么。在文献本身的限制范围内，本综述介绍了教师规划领域的研究结果，其中教师作为信息提供者和研究合作者发挥着重要作用。对教师规划的影响 许多因素影响教师规划。研究发现，教学经验本身会影响规划。当职前教师和新教师制定计划时，他们通常很大程度上依赖于职前教育课程中指导他们如何计划的方式。但经验丰富的教师在制定计划时，通常会反思之前的课程，并将这些课程中成功的方面纳入未来课程的计划中。本节讨论的对教师规划的其他重要影响是日程安排。教学材料，以及学生本身的兴趣和能力。 Brown (1988) 在对 12 名中学教师进行的描述性案例研究中发现，教师的规划很大程度上受到过去对他们有效的影响。经验的影响得到了其他研究的支持（Borko & Niles, 1982; Brown, 1988; Clark, 1983; Clark & Elmore, 1979; Clark& Peterson, 1986; Clark& Yinger, 1979a, 1979b, 1987; Kagan T McCutcheon, 1980; Yinger, 1980）。当经验丰富的教师制定计划时，他们经常会反思过去的课程，以确定如何改进教学。 McCutcheon (1980) 将这种类型的计划称为“心理”计划，并将其描述为“反思过去并设想当前和后续课程中可能发生的情况”（第 11 页）。即使教师正在进行洗澡、吃饭、开车等活动（Borko & Niles，1987）。凭借先前的经验，在心里演练他们计划教授的课程，了解其中的活动顺序，并预测学生可能的反应。因此，教师可以开发一个课程流程，因为他们已经仔细考虑了自己的行动并决定了哪些是有效的和高效的（McCutcheon，1980）。 Brown (1988)、McCutcheon (1980) 和 Yinger (1980) 发现学校日程也会影响教师规划。基于管理的调度被认为是潜在问题的根源。 McCutcheon 的研究（1980）考察了弗吉尼亚州三个不同学校系统中六所不同学校的教师规划活动。 ……
Most teachers will agree that planning is an important part of effective teaching. Before teachers can be effective in the classroom, they must decide how to present the curriculum to the students in the most efficient and effective manner. But exactly what is teacher planning and what does it involve? This literature review examines the research documenting teacher planning and attempts to present a comprehensive overview of the major findings. The review begins by defining "teacher planning." Clark and Peterson (1986) give two definitions of teacher planning. First, they state that planning is a set of basic psychological processes in which a person visualized the future, inventories means and ends, and constructs a framework to guide his or her future action. Drawing heavily upon cognitive psychology, this definition presents planning as a conceptual framework. Secondly, Clark and Peterson state that planning includes "the things that teachers do when they say they are planning" (p.260). The second definition is the more widely accepted definition of planning because of its descriptive approach to research about teacher planning. Few studies about teacher planning exist, and nearly all of this research has been published since 1970. However, there have been guidelines and approaches related to teacher planning before the 1970s, such as the highly touted Tyler (1950) model which has been widely prescribed at all levels for teachers in their planning. Yet, there was little or no research before the 1970's that described or explained what teachers actually do when they plan. Within the limitations imposed by the literature itself, this review presents those findings in the area of teacher planning in which the teacher assumes an important role as informant and as research collaborator. Influences on Teacher Planning Many factors influence teacher planning. Research has found that teaching experience itself influences planning. When pre-service and beginning teachers plan, they often rely heavily on how they were instructed to plan in their preservice education courses. But when experienced teachers plan, they often reflect upon prior lessons and pull successful aspects of those lessons into plans for future lessons. Other significant influences on teacher planning discussed in this section are scheduling. Instructional materials, and the interests and abilities of the students themselves. In a descriptive case study of 12 middle school teachers, Brown (1988) found that teachers are greatly influenced in their planning by what has worked for them in the past. The influence of experience is supported by other studies (Borko & Niles, 1982; Brown, 1988; Clark, 1983; Clark & Elmore, 1979; Clark& Peterson, 1986; Clark& Yinger, 1979a, 1979b, 1987; Kagan T McCutcheon, 1980; Yinger, 1980). When experienced teachers plan, they often reflect upon past lessons to determine how they can improve their teaching. McCutcheon (1980) refers to this type of planning as "mental" and describes it as "reflecting on the past and envisioning what might occur in current and subsequent lessons" (p. 11). spontaneously, even while teachers are engaged in activities such as bathing, eating, driving (Borko & Niles, 1987). With prior experiences and mentally rehearse the lesson they plan to teach, know the sequence of activities withing it, and anticipate students' probable responses. Thus, teachers can develop a lesson flow because they have thought through their actions and have decided which will be effective and efficient (McCutcheon, 1980). Brown (1988), McCutcheon (1980), and Yinger (1980) found that the school schedule also influences teacher planning. Administratively based scheduling was perceived to be a source of potential problems. McCutcheon's study (1980) examined teachers' planning activities in six different schools in three different Virginia school systems. …