The interactive effects of smoking and carotenoids on age-related changes in intelligence - a longitudinal study among community-dwelling middle-aged and elderly

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Carotenoids, antioxidants which exist in abundance in fruit and vegetables, may show the effects more clearly under hyper-oxidant stress like smoking.In this study we clarified 1) smoking had negative effects on intelligence among the middle-aged and elderly, 2) carotenoids had some effects to prevent from intelligence decline, 3) this effects of carotenoids were more powerful among smokers, that was, smokers who took sufficient carotenoids showed similar age-related change of intelligence as non-smokers. On the other hand, smokers who took only small amounts of carotenoids showed more rapid intelligence decline.