Orthography and phonology in word learning as a predictor of dyslexia in children with language impairment

项目总结 语言障碍儿童(LI)占接受特殊教育人口的近20% (Tomblin等人，1997)，而且阅读障碍的可能性是同龄人的6倍 典型的语言发展(Stoeckel等人，2013年)。而大多数患有李氏综合症的孩子阅读能力很差 在理解能力方面(Catts等人，2002年)，只有不到一半的人的单词阅读能力较差，这与 阅读障碍(Catts，Adlof，Hogan，&Weismer，2005)。在两项检查纵向阅读的大规模研究中 LI儿童的结局，无法确定可靠地区分幼儿园儿童LI的因素 在第二名中，李先生的单词阅读能力会更好，而第二名则会出现阅读障碍 年级及以上(Catts等人，2005年；Bishop等人，2009年)。不能辨别未来的单词阅读 LI儿童的结局为有效治疗创造了关键障碍，并禁止 优化利用有限的治疗时间来满足个别儿童的需求。 当代典型阅读发展模式以正字法之间的相互关系为中心 加工(字母和字母模式)和语音加工(声音和发音模式)。在这些 模型，早期的语音加工是字母原则(字母代表)习得的基础 语音)和随后的单词阅读，反过来，正字法知识影响语音加工 (Share，1995；Ziegler&Ferrand，1998)。因此，正字法加工和语音加工是相关的 在新兴的典型读者中，并随着单词阅读能力的不断提高而继续发展(Hogan， Catts，&Little，2005；Wagner等人，1997)。然而，当代模型无法解释为什么超过一半的人 尽管早期语音处理能力较弱，但仍有一部分李氏儿童发展出良好的单词阅读技能(CATS， Adlof，Hogan和Weismer，2005)。尽管它对典型的阅读发展具有重要意义，但正字法 在对李氏儿童的研究中，加工过程在很大程度上被忽视了。我们引人注目的试点数据是 为我们的假设奠定了基础：a)最初较弱的语音加工通过以下方式得到补偿 LI儿童的矫形优势，以及b)这些早期的矫形优势将预测谁 在患有李的幼儿中，与那些将继续进行单词阅读的儿童相比， 有阅读障碍。 我们的具体目标是：1)确定接触正字法对新语言习得的影响 李氏儿童词汇学习过程中的拼写和语音形式及其随时间的变化 和他们典型的发展中的同龄人；2)表征拼写和语音加工的特征 从幼儿园到二年级，患有李氏综合症的儿童和他们的典型发展同龄人；3)确定 儿童正字法加工、语音加工和单词阅读发展的预测因素 与李和他们典型的发展中的同龄人。我们的目标是填补正字法处理的一个理论空白 在涉及李氏儿童的阅读和单词学习研究中被忽视，他们解决了 方法论上的局限性，否定了关于音位和音素之间相互作用的结论 正交法处理。 我们严谨的方法将纵向研究与精心控制的实验工作相结合。这个 这个项目的创新包括我们使用了一种新颖的、动态的单词学习范式，它捕捉到了 在单一任务中掌握语音和拼写知识和学习。我们的发现将具有广泛的临床意义 和理论影响，为我们的长期目标a)创建更精确的工具，为早期 识别智力低下儿童的阅读障碍；b)揭示儿童阅读障碍的理论机制 正字法加工、语音加工和单词阅读的相互关系的发展；以及c) 量化拼写和语音学习概况，为个性化阅读干预提供信息。

PROJECT SUMMARY Children with language impairment (LI) comprise nearly 20% of the population receiving special education services (Tomblin et al., 1997) and are six times more likely to have a reading impairment than their peers with typical language development (Stoeckel et al., 2013). Whereas most children with LI have poor reading comprehension (Catts et al., 2002), fewer than half have poor word-reading abilities, commensurate with dyslexia (Catts, Adlof, Hogan, & Weismer, 2005). In two large-scale studies that examined longitudinal reading outcomes in children with LI, factors could not be identified that reliably distinguished kindergarten children with LI who would go on to have good word reading abilities versus those who would go on to have dyslexia in 2nd grade and beyond (Catts et al., 2005; Bishop et al., 2009). The inability to distinguish future word-reading outcomes for young children with LI creates a critical barrier to efficacious treatment and prohibits optimal use of limited therapy time to address individual children's needs. Contemporary models of typical reading development center on a reciprocal relation between orthographic processing (letters and letter patterns) and phonological processing (sounds and sound patterns). In these models, early phonological processing underpins acquisition of the alphabetic principle (that letters represent sounds) and subsequent word reading, and in turn, orthographic knowledge impacts phonological processing (Share, 1995; Ziegler & Ferrand, 1998). Accordingly, orthographic and phonological processing are correlated in emerging typical readers and continue to develop in tandem with increasing word reading abilities (Hogan, Catts, & Little, 2005; Wagner et al., 1997). However, contemporary models cannot explain why more than half of children with LI develop good word reading skills despite early phonological processing weakness (Catts, Adlof, Hogan, & Weismer, 2005). Despite its significance to typical reading development, orthographic processing has largely been ignored in studies of children with LI. Our compelling pilot data are the foundation for our hypotheses that: a) initially weak phonological processing is compensated for by orthographic strengths in children with LI, and b) these early orthographic strengths will predict who among young children with LI will go onto have good word reading versus those who will go on to have dyslexia. Our specific aims are: 1) to determine the impact of exposure to orthography on the acquisition of new orthographic and phonological forms during word learning and how this changes over time in children with LI and their typically developing peers; 2) to characterize profiles of orthographic and phonological processing in children with LI and their typically developing peers from kindergarten to 2nd grade; and 3) to determine predictors of development in orthographic processing, phonological processing, and word reading in children with LI and their typically developing peers. Our aims fill a theoretical gap in which orthographic processing has been overlooked in reading and word learning studies involving children with LI, and they address methodological limitations that have negated conclusive findings on the reciprocity between phonological and orthographic processing. Our rigorous approach combines longitudinal research with carefully controlled experimental work. The innovation of this project includes our use of a novel, dynamic word learning paradigm, which captures phonological and orthographic knowledge and learning in a single task. Our findings will have broad clinical and theoretical impact by contributing to our long-term goals a) to create more precise tools for early identification of reading impairments in children with LI; b) to reveal theory-based mechanisms for the interrelated development of orthographic processing, phonological processing, and word reading; and c) to quantify orthographic and phonological learning profiles to inform individualized reading interventions.