Biocultural collections and networks of knowledge exchange in the 19th century: the quest for quinine

疟疾被世卫组织描述为“人类历史上最大的致命疾病”。尽管直到19世纪末人们才了解其病因，但其发热症状自古以来就已得到确认。从17世纪30年代到30年代，到目前为止，在欧洲及其帝国领土上使用的最有效的治疗方法是奎宁生物碱，它含有金鸡纳树的树皮。金鸡纳树生长在安第斯山脉的东坡上，因此两个世纪以来，金鸡纳树皮的进口受到不确定的、往往是垄断的供应链以及对这种树的植物学和化学知识有限的限制。然而，在1850年至1870年期间，富含生物碱的树木被识别、收集和移植，导致在印度、爪哇和整个热带地区建立了大型种植园，并挽救了数百万人的生命。虽然这个故事的结果是明确的，但实现有效生物勘探的关键过程几乎没有研究；霍尼斯鲍姆对移植的研究和维勒对印第安种植园的研究仅仅反映了故事的开始和结束。特别是，人们仍然不清楚金鸡纳的植物学和化学是如何解决的，以及这种新的认识以何种方式形成了一个有效的植物探索计划和奎宁的标准化形式的发展，供印度和欧洲使用和出口。该项目旨在展示基于收集的证据在解决此类问题方面的价值。Walker（该项目的学生）和Nesbitt对邱园经济植物学收藏的初步研究表明，树皮标本进出伦敦的流通对新知识的发展至关重要。这些标本本身有大量注释（通常附有生物碱分析），反映了奎因学家（疟疾专家）之间行之有效的工作方式和标本交换模式，并可与记录关键网络发展的档案记录相关联。杰出的药品批发商和独立科学家约翰·艾略特·霍华德（John Eliot Howard）成为连接印度办事处、商业制药部门、英国皇家植物园（Kew）的植物学家以及伦敦和印度的分析化学家的地缘政治需求的关键人物。该项目的方法论是基于邱园的档案和物品收藏。该项目将以一种整合的方法开始，以发展邱园金纳藏品（世界上最大的），并考虑如何将子藏品和标本映射到邱园、伦敦大都会档案馆和皇家药学会的档案和图书馆材料中（它们之间存放着霍华德的大部分论文和许多官方报告）。这将成为成功转让树木和开发药物的案例研究的基础。对选定的欧洲藏品的研究将提供关于标本流通的进一步数据。该项目是在国家生产力投资基金强调研究医疗和工业创新的框架内制定的。它的设计是为了揭开博物馆藏品的故事和扩展潜力，这些藏品对19世纪的健康和经济有着巨大的意义。它还直接回应了对跨学科研究的重视：该项目的共同选址将使邱园的STEM植物学家及其海外合作伙伴（例如哥本哈根）能够进行强有力的互动，同时借鉴包括历史地理学、科学和医学史、帝国史和环境史在内的广泛人文领域的方法。

Malaria has been described by WHO as the 'greatest killer disease in human history'. Although its causation was not understood until the end of the 19th century, its symptoms of fever have been recognised since antiquity. In the period from the 1630s to 1930s, by far the most effective treatment used in Europe and its imperial territories was the quinine alkaloids, contained in the bark of the cinchona tree. Cinchona trees grow high on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and thus for two centuries import of cinchona bark was constrained by uncertain, often monopolistic supply chains, and by limited knowledge of the botany and chemistry of the tree. However, in the period 1850-1870 alkaloid-rich trees were identified, collected and transplanted, leading to the establishment of large plantations in India, Java and throughout the tropics, and the saving of millions of lives. Although the outcomes of this story are clear, the crucial processes that enabled effective bioprospection have been barely researched; Honigsbaum's work on transplantation and Veale's on the Indian plantations simply reflect the beginning and end of the story. In particular, it remains unclear how the botany and chemistry of cinchona were resolved, and in what ways this new understanding shaped an effective programme of plant exploration and the development of standardised forms of quinine for Indian and European use and export. The project seeks to demonstrate the value of collections-based evidence in addressing such questions. Preliminary work by Walker (named student for this project) and Nesbitt on Kew's Economic Botany Collection shows that the circulation of bark specimens in and out of London was fundamental to the development of new knowledge. Reflecting well-established ways of working and patterns of exchange of specimens among quinologists (malaria experts), the specimens themselves are heavily annotated (often with alkaloid analyses) and can be linked to archival records which document the development of key networks. John Eliot Howard, prominent pharmaceutical wholesaler and independent scientist, emerges as a key figure connecting the geopolitical imperatives of the India Office, the commercial pharmaceutical sector, botanists at Kew, and analytical chemists in London and India. The methodology of the project is grounded in Kew's archival and object collections. The project will start with an assemblage approach to the development of the Kew cinchona collection (the largest in the world), and consider how sub-collections and specimens map onto archive and library material at Kew, London Metropolitan Archives and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society (which between them house most of Howard's papers, and many official reports). This will form the basis for case studies of the successful transfer of trees and development of medicines. Research in selected European collections will provide further data on specimen circulation. The project is framed within the National Productivity Investment Fund's emphasis on the study of medical and industrial innovation. It is designed to unlock the stories and outreach potential of a museum collection of immense significance for 19th century health and the economy. It also responds directly to the emphasis on interdisciplinary research: the co-location of the project will enable strong interaction with STEM botanists at Kew and its overseas partners (e.g. at Copenhagen) while drawing on approaches from a wide range of humanities fields including historical geography, history of science and medicine, imperial history and environmental history.