Biocultural collections and networks of knowledge exchange in the 19th century: the quest for quinine

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Malaria has been described by WHO as the 'greatest killer disease in human history'. Although its causation was not understood until the end of the 19th century, its symptoms of fever have been recognised since antiquity. In the period from the 1630s to 1930s, by far the most effective treatment used in Europe and its imperial territories was the quinine alkaloids, contained in the bark of the cinchona tree. Cinchona trees grow high on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and thus for two centuries import of cinchona bark was constrained by uncertain, often monopolistic supply chains, and by limited knowledge of the botany and chemistry of the tree. However, in the period 1850-1870 alkaloid-rich trees were identified, collected and transplanted, leading to the establishment of large plantations in India, Java and throughout the tropics, and the saving of millions of lives. Although the outcomes of this story are clear, the crucial processes that enabled effective bioprospection have been barely researched; Honigsbaum's work on transplantation and Veale's on the Indian plantations simply reflect the beginning and end of the story. In particular, it remains unclear how the botany and chemistry of cinchona were resolved, and in what ways this new understanding shaped an effective programme of plant exploration and the development of standardised forms of quinine for Indian and European use and export. The project seeks to demonstrate the value of collections-based evidence in addressing such questions. Preliminary work by Walker (named student for this project) and Nesbitt on Kew's Economic Botany Collection shows that the circulation of bark specimens in and out of London was fundamental to the development of new knowledge. Reflecting well-established ways of working and patterns of exchange of specimens among quinologists (malaria experts), the specimens themselves are heavily annotated (often with alkaloid analyses) and can be linked to archival records which document the development of key networks. John Eliot Howard, prominent pharmaceutical wholesaler and independent scientist, emerges as a key figure connecting the geopolitical imperatives of the India Office, the commercial pharmaceutical sector, botanists at Kew, and analytical chemists in London and India. The methodology of the project is grounded in Kew's archival and object collections. The project will start with an assemblage approach to the development of the Kew cinchona collection (the largest in the world), and consider how sub-collections and specimens map onto archive and library material at Kew, London Metropolitan Archives and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society (which between them house most of Howard's papers, and many official reports). This will form the basis for case studies of the successful transfer of trees and development of medicines. Research in selected European collections will provide further data on specimen circulation. The project is framed within the National Productivity Investment Fund's emphasis on the study of medical and industrial innovation. It is designed to unlock the stories and outreach potential of a museum collection of immense significance for 19th century health and the economy. It also responds directly to the emphasis on interdisciplinary research: the co-location of the project will enable strong interaction with STEM botanists at Kew and its overseas partners (e.g. at Copenhagen) while drawing on approaches from a wide range of humanities fields including historical geography, history of science and medicine, imperial history and environmental history.