Technology, organisation, and networks of metal production and circulation in the Eurasian Steppe Bronze Age: a case of large-scale copper production

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The 2nd millennium BC in Eurasia is marked by an intensification of metal production, which laid the foundations for the trade networks linking the far ends of this continent, later recognised as the Silk Roads. Towards the centre of this complex system were the semi-nomadic steppe pastoralists, commonly regarded as merchants. This research project explores their overlooked role as engineers of such an industrial-scale metal production and circulation. Thus far, the evolution and spread of this prominent technology in the steppes, which translate into metallurgical (i) production parameters and protocols and the related (ii) circulation mechanisms, have been approached largely through artefacts typologies and characterisation of metal ore deposits, leading to the theorization of a West-to-East staged development via production cores, labelled as 'metallurgical provinces'.Nevertheless, at present little is yet known on mechanisms and trajectories underlying local/regional-scale organisation and technological development of metallurgy in the Bronze Age Eurasian Steppe. On this line, more studies aiming to characterise the whole production chain at single sites are required, in order to gain a fine-grained picture enabling to describe metallurgical production and circulation from local/regional to continental scale. The 2nd millennium BC site of Taldysai (central Kazakhstan) yielded a unique complex of furnaces, production debris, mining tools and bronze artefacts, all available for detailed analysis together with comparative regional metallurgical databases. Its proximity to Dzhezkazgan, a major Bronze Age mine in the steppes, allows the investigation of large-scale metalmaking technology and landscape exploitation and management to study the role of Taldysai within the wider regional network of metal production and circulation. Methodology builds on a robust protocol that integrates innovative analytical tools from Archaeology, Material and Earth Sciences, Geography, Physics and Statistics through archaeomaterials and network analyses. The main themes of (i) production and (ii) circulation will be addressed in parallel through three research focuses and related research questions:(1) Raw materials: What were their origins, quality and acquisition routes? Were these sustainably organised in terms of landscape management and exploitation?(2) Metal production: What were the skills of the metalsmiths at Taldysai, i.e. what were the recipes/protocols for copper smelting? Was the process standardised? What was the scale of metal produced? (3) Metals and Late Bronze Age steppe society: Where was locally produced metal likely to be traded and why? How did metalsmiths of Taldysai fit in the wider economic network of metals/ores supply in the steppes, and beyond?Results will provide a more complete study of the metallurgical expertise among non-sedentary societies and expand our understanding of the network dynamics connecting different steppe regions, alongside forces driving metal production and circulation across the Eurasian continent.