Climate Adaptation and Gender

离开农业被广泛认为是经济发展的同义词。由于非农业工作在城市地区更为常见，这往往与移民密切相关（Bryan等人，2014年; Gollin等人，2014年; Young，2013年）。印度的砖窑具有制造业雇主的许多特征，可以作为经济增长的门户。砖窑位于城市周边地区，雇用约1500万工人，其中很大一部分是农村移民（Eil等人，2023年; Tibrewal等人，2023年）。然而，我的研究将认为，信贷约束滋生合同安排在这个行业，使所有的盈余是由雇主和招聘人员提取。因此，砖窑工作无法减少贫困，挑战了我们对移民与经济发展之间相互作用的传统理解。印度砖窑的主要招聘做法有三个主要特征（Guérin & Kumar，2015; Kumari，2018; Majumder，2015; PCLRA，2020）。首先，制砖是季节性的，农民工在每一个歉收季节之后返回农村务农。第二，工人在季风期间由中间人招募。第三，中间商向工人支付一大笔预付款，让他们在窑里工作，直到这笔钱还清，即使工人意识到其他地方有更好的工作机会。我的研究将从经验和理论上证明，农村信贷约束通过鼓励个人放弃高回报的城市工作而选择直接现金来维持这些合同。其次，我认为，尽管窑炉工人的生产力比留在村庄更高，但进步使他们保持在维持生计的消费水平。从这个意义上说，砖窑造成的移民和职业变化未能实现减贫。尽管早期的研究已经证明，在信贷摩擦下，（Burke等人，2018; Fink等人，2020; Jayachandran，2006），以及这些摩擦对延迟结构转型的影响（Banerjee和纽曼，1993年; Rosenzweig和Wolpin，1993年），合同的作用下，穷人的供应劳动力受到了有限的关注。首先，我将从印度奥里萨邦移民输出村庄的个人那里收集焦点小组讨论和调查数据。接下来，我将使用这些数据来记录市场失灵的程式化事实和砖窑产生的职业变化的性质。最后，我将开发一个职业选择模型，并使用调查数据中观察到的模式对其进行校准。这将使我能够估计相关政策反事实的影响，例如小额信贷干预和工人替代就业机会的改善。我的研究将涉及几个关键政策领域。如何鼓励移徙-减少贫穷-的问题对发展中国家至关重要。确保这些迁移使移民及其家庭受益意味着确保个人有资源到达需要他们技能的地方。在气候变化的背景下，这一点尤其重要。了解如何防止气候难民和促进向风险较低的城市工作的过渡是适应政策的核心。我的研究亦与取消涉及预付劳工的合约这一更具体的政策目标有关。这些合同可能构成债役，这是一种现代奴隶制。虽然许多国家已将这种做法定为非法，但债役在发展中世界的一些地方仍然普遍存在，包括南亚的砖窑以及刚果（劳工组织，2015年）和马达加斯加（Shahinian，2013年）的采矿业。Banerjee，A.五、&纽曼，A. F.（1993年）。

Leaving agriculture is widely considered to be synonymous with economic development. Since non-agricultural jobs are more common in urban areas, this often goes hand in hand with migration (Bryan et al, 2014; Gollin et al, 2014; Young, 2013). India's brick kilns have many of the hallmarks of a manufacturing employer that could serve as a gateway to economic growth. Brick kilns are located in peri-urban areas and hire an estimated 15 million workers, a large share of whom are rural migrants (Eil et al, 2023; Tibrewal et al, 2023). However, my research will argue that credit constraints breed contractual arrangements in this industry such that all surplus is extracted by employers and recruiters. As a result, brick kiln jobs fail to reduce poverty, challenging our conventional understanding of the interplay between migration and economic development.The dominant recruitment practice in India's brick kilns has three main features (Guérin & Kumar, 2015; Kumari, 2018; Majumder, 2015; PCLRA, 2020). First, brick production is seasonal, with migrants returning to villages after each lean season to work in agriculture. Second, workers are recruited during the monsoon by middlemen. Third, middlemen pay workers a large advance, binding them to work at the kiln until this is repaid, even if workers become aware of a better job opportunity elsewhere. This advance is ultimately repaid through earnings at the kiln with a substantial interest rate.My research will demonstrate empirically and theoretically that rural credit constraints perpetuate these contracts by encouraging individuals to forgo the possibility of high-return urban jobs in favour of immediate cash. Second, I will argue that, although workers are more productive at kilns than if they had stayed in their villages, advances keep them at subsistence levels of consumption. In this sense, the migration and occupational change created by brick kilns fail to achieve poverty reduction. Though earlier research has documented costly consumption smoothing under credit frictions (Burke et al, 2018; Fink et al, 2020; Jayachandran, 2006), as well as the impact of these frictions on delaying structural transformation (Banerjee and Newman, 1993; Rosenzweig and Wolpin, 1993), the role of the contracts under which the poor supply labour has received limited attention.My methodology involves three main steps. First, I will collect focus group discussion and survey data from individuals in migrant-sending villages in Odisha, India. Next, I will use this data to document stylized facts on market failures and the nature of occupational change generated by brick kilns. Finally, I will develop a model of occupational choice and calibrate it using observed patterns in survey data. This will allow me to estimate the effects of relevant policy counterfactuals, such as microcredit interventions and improvements in workers' alternative employment opportunities.My research will address several key policy areas. The question of how to encourage migration which is poverty reducing is critical for developing countries. Guaranteeing these moves benefit migrants and their families means ensuring individuals have the resources to reach locations at which their skills are in demand. This is particularly crucial within the context of climate change. Understanding both how to prevent climate refugees and facilitate transitions to less risky urban jobs is central to adaptation policy. My research is also relevant to the more specific policy objective of eliminating contracts involving advance payment for labour. These contracts can constitute debt bondage, which is a form of modern slavery. Whilst many countries have made this practice illegal, debt bondage remains prevalent in pockets across the developing world, including in brick kilns in South Asia as well as the mining industries of Congo (ILO, 2015) and Madagascar (Shahinian, 2013). ReferencesBanerjee, A. V., & Newman, A. F. (1993).