Physiology and Pharmacology of Brain Reward Circuits

大麻的主要精神活性成分是四氢大麻酚（THC）。此外，大脑中还会合成内源性物质，可以激活大麻素受体，这些物质被称为内源性大麻素（eCB）。所有作用于这种物质受体的药物，无论是天然的还是合成的，统称为大麻素（CBs）。通过吸食或摄入大麻而获得的大麻素药物之所以被使用，是因为它们通过与大脑的“奖励回路”相互作用来增强或奖励人类。这些研究的目标之一是获得大麻素改变脑细胞功能的潜在机制的知识，并最终产生这些药物的愉悦效果的机制，从而维持其使用。本实验室的主要重点是研究滥用药物改变神经元电活动的机制，以及这些神经元通过突触连接相互交流的方式。因此，我们的目标之一是确定特定的离子通道，其活性被滥用药物如大麻，尼古丁，海洛因和可卡因所改变。为了实现这些目标，我们利用从涉及处理有关愉快和不愉快环境刺激的信息的离散脑区急性获得的大鼠脑切片。我们利用全细胞电生理记录和细胞解剖技术来重建我们记录的神经元。在这些正在进行的研究中，我们正在研究这些药物影响神经元及其在腹侧被盖区（VTA）连接的机制。这个大脑区域及其连接与所有滥用药物的强化和奖励行为密切相关，也与介导自然环境刺激（如食物、水等）的奖励作用密切相关。VTA还参与处理有关生理应激反应、情绪和情感以及精神警觉性的信息。由于其在这些过程中的核心作用，VTA是导致成瘾、精神压力障碍、临床抑郁症和精神焦虑症等疾病的大脑区域。

The main psychoactive component of marijuana is known as delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In addition, endogenous substances are synthesized in the brain that can activate cannabinoid receptors, and these substances are referred to as endocannabinoids (eCB). All drugs, both natural and synthetic, that act at receptors for this substance are known collectively as cannabinoids (CBs). Cannabinoid drugs obtained by the smoking or ingestion of marijuana are used because they are reinforcing or rewarding to humans through interaction with the brain's "reward circuitry". One of the objectives of these studies is to gain knowledge about the underlying mechanisms through which cannabinoids alter brain cell function, and ultimately the mechanisms that produce the pleasurable effects of these drugs that sustain their use. The primary focus of this laboratory is to examine the mechanisms through which abused drugs alter the electrical activity of neurons and the ways in which these neurons communicate with each other via synaptic connections. Therefore, one of our goals is to identify specific ion channels whose activity is modified by abused drugs such as marijuana, nicotine, heroin, and cocaine. To achieve these goals we utilize rat brain slices acutely obtained from discrete brain areas involved in processing information regarding pleasurable and unpleasant environmental stimuli. We utilize whole-cell electrophysiological recordings, and cellular anatomical techniques to reconstruct the neurons from which we record. In these ongoing studies we are examining the mechanisms through which these drugs affect neurons and their connections in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This brain area and its connections are strongly implicated in the reinforcing and rewarding actions of all abused drugs, as well as in mediating the rewarding effects of natural environmental stimuli, such as food, water, etc. The VTA is also involved in processing information regarding the physiological stress responses, mood and affect, and mental alertness. Because of its central role in these processes, the VTA is a brain area that contributes to disorders such as addiction, psychiatric stress disorders, clinical depression, and psychiatric anxiety disorders. Our recent work in the VTA is designed understand the mechanisms through which eCBs modulate VTA circuitry during psychostimulant exposure. Many studies show that antagonism of cannabinoid CB1Rs can block self-administration of several abused drugs. Furthermore, the increase in DA concentration that is observed in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) following systemic nicotine, cocaine or ethanol administration is greatly reduced by systemic administration of the CB1R antagonist/partial agonist SR141716A2. This drug also decreases DA release in the NAc in response to the presentation of reward-associated cues, suggesting that eCBs are important for DA increases in the mesolimbic system by unconditioned and conditioned stimuli associated with drug abuse. There is also evidence that infusion of CB1R antagonists directly into the VTA can reduce the rewarding effect of peripheral nicotine, and reduce the release of DA in the VTA following systemic cocaine administration in rats. Data from our laboratory and others also show that eCBs are released from dopamine neurons in the VTA. Collectively, these data suggest that these eCBs act within the VTA on CB1Rs to increase the release of DA in the NAc during the intake of abused drugs, or during exposure to drug-paired stimuli. Although CB1Rs are located on both GABAergic and glutamatergic axon terminals within the VTA, we hypothesize that it is the inhibition of GABA release and disinhibition of DA neurons by THC that is responsible for its rewarding effects. We further hypothesize that the increase in DA neuron activity by abused drugs causes release of the eCB, 2-aracchidonoylglycerol (2-AG), which then augments DA neuron excitation through inhibition of GABA release, in an eCB-driven positive feedback loop. For these reasons we are conducting experiments to determine whether abused drugs trigger eCB release in the VTA, and what mechanisms might underlie this action. The most sensitive physiological measure of eCB function that we have found in the VTA are synaptic GABAB-receptor-mediated IPSCs, activated by electrical stimulation. These responses are strongly inhibited by presynaptic CB1Rs, and are tonically inhibited by the eCB, 2-AG, since their amplitudes are increased in the presence of CB1R antagonists, or when 2-AG synthesis is inhibited by inclusion of a diacylglycerol lipase-alpha (DGL-alpha) inhibitor, THL, in the whole-cell pipettes. Additionally, phasic, activity-dependent 2-AG release can be observed when DA neurons are transiently depolarized to fire action potentials, and this is also mediated by an increase in 2-AG release. Our recently acquired data show that GABA-B IPSCs in VTA DA neurons are inhibited by cocaine (10 microM), and this is reduced by the CB1R antagonist AM251 (2 microM). The effect of cocaine is partly mediated by 2-AG released from the recorded neuron, and from surrounding cells, since THL blocks the effect more strongly when applied extracellularly, versus intracellularly. These data suggest that cocaine stimulates the release of 2-AG in the VTA to reduce GABA release onto DA neurons. We hypothesize that the reduction of inhibition by cocaine increases the excitability of midbrain DA neurons to augment release of DA in projection areas like the NAc, as described in in vivo studies. Because this cocaine action may be important for its rewarding and addicting properties, we are performing additional experiments to determine the mechanism(s) by which cocaine releases 2-AG in the VTA. We have recently expanded these studies by showing that specifically knocking DGL-alpha only in DA neurons prevents cocaine-induced 2-AG function in the VTA in vitro. Moreover, we are now exploring the mechanisms through which 2-AG is released in the VTA and have strong evidence that this occurs via exosomes that are secreted via the coordinated actions of the sigma1 receptor and specific intracellular signaling pathways. Together, these studies will identify a novel role for cocaine-induced 2-AG release in this brain reward area, and will identify the mechanisms through which these lipid molecules are released.