Biology of insect galls, ecology of inhabitants, gall anatomy and development

虫胆是植物上非典型的、类似器官的生长，由专门的昆虫引起，这种昆虫进化出了控制植物生长的能力，使其成为昆虫的优势。只有昆虫在这种联系中受益，因为它们被厚厚的细胞层包围，这些细胞层提供食物和庇护所。作为其生活史策略的一部分，有几种昆虫会诱发植物虫害，但最常见和最多样化的是蚊子和虫害黄蜂。大多数五倍子黄蜂攻击橡树和野玫瑰，每一种都会产生结构上不同的五倍子。胡蜂属的黄蜂仅限于在野玫瑰上诱导虫害。世界上大约有42种Diplolepis，加拿大有13种，它们的虫胆大小不一，从叶子上的小豌豆状结构到茎上高尔夫球大小的肿块。研究虫胆的解剖和发育为了解植物如何控制自身发育提供了新的工具。虫胆代表离散的微生境，支持专业居民的封闭群落，便于采集虫胆，观察和计数虫胆的居住者，并推断它们之间的相互作用，使它们成为从种群动态到动物群落的进化和动物地理学等学科领域的有用研究系统。研究从加拿大南部到西北部和安大略省北部林线的胆汁群落，有助于深入了解冰川作用后动植物是如何迁入加拿大的。它们还提供了一个机会来研究全球变暖是如何允许玫瑰和与之相关的虫子进一步向北移动的。一些国内的玫瑰，如玫瑰，已经成为加拿大东部、美国和欧洲的杂草，在安大略省发现的两种Diplolepis Galler被认为是它们的生物防治试剂。

Galls are atypical, organ-like growths on plants caused by specialized insects that have evolved the ability to control the growth of plants to the insect's advantage. Only the insects gain in the association as they are surrounded by thick layers of cells that provide food and shelter. Several kinds of insects induce plant galls as part of their life history strategies, but the most common and diverse are midges and gall wasps. Most gall wasps attack oaks and wild roses and each species induces a structurally distinct gall. Wasps of the genus Diplolepis are restricted to inducing galls on wild roses. There are about 42 species of Diplolepis in the world and 13 in Canada with galls that vary in size from small pea-like structures on leaves to large swellings the size of golf balls on stems. Studying the anatomy and development of galls provides a novel tool for understanding how plants control their own development. Galls represent discrete microhabitats that support closed communities of specialist inhabitants and the ease by which galls can be collected, their occupants observed and counted, and the interactions among them inferred, make them useful study systems in subject areas ranging from population dynamics to the evolution and zoogeography of animal communities. Studying gall communities from southern Canada to the tree line in the NWT and northern Ontario provides insight into how flora and fauna moved into Canada following glaciation. They also provide an opportunity to study how global warming is allowing both roses and the gall insects associated with them to move further northward. Some domestic roses, such as Rosa rugosa, have become weeds in eastern Canada, the USA, and Europe, and two of the Diplolepis gallers found in Ontario are being considered as agents for their biological control.