The Limits of Intervention: Coercive Diplomacy and the Jewish Question in the Nineteenth Century
The Limits of Intervention: Coercive Diplomacy and the Jewish Question in the Nineteenth Century
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干预的局限性：强制外交与十九世纪的犹太问题
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发表时间：
2014
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通讯作者：
Abigail Green
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作者：
Abigail Green
本文认为，探讨犹太人问题的外交反应，为世纪国际体系中人道主义干预的目的提供了新的视角。它对比了19世纪60年代和70年代国际社会对摩洛哥和罗马尼亚犹太少数民族权利问题的反应，特别提到了柏林会议（1878年）和马德里会议（1880年）。前者导致了一项条约，认可奥斯曼帝国和巴尔干新兴民族国家的宗教平等原则，而后者只导致了一项不具约束力的有利于宗教自由的宣言。因此，国际体系赞成对罗马尼亚的基督教政体进行人道主义干预，但不赞成对摩洛哥的穆斯林政体进行人道主义干预：这一结论使关于人道主义干预的假设复杂化，因为人道主义干预基本上是由基督教大国对穆斯林奥斯曼帝国进行的。讽刺的是，在奥斯曼帝国和巴尔干半岛新兴的基督教国家强制推行宗教平等的外交努力，反映出这些国家愿意承认这些国家是新兴国际体系的正式成员，前提是它们采用某些宪法规范。摩洛哥被给予了更大的自由，因为外交官和西方观察家最终认为它无法实现这一飞跃。
This paper argues that exploring diplomatic responses to the Jewish question casts new light on the purpose of humanitarian intervention within the international system during the nineteenth century. It contrasts international responses to the question of Jewish minority rights in Morocco and Romania during the 1860s and 1870s, with particular reference to the Congress of Berlin (1878) and the Conference of Madrid (1880). The former resulted in a Treaty endorsing the principle of religious equality in the Ottoman Empire and the emerging nation-states of the Balkans, while the latter resulted only in a non-binding Declaration in favour of religious freedom. Thus the international system favoured humanitarian intervention in the Christian polity of Romania but not in the Muslim polity of Morocco: a conclusion that complicates assumptions about humanitarian intervention as essentially directed by Christian powers against the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Paradoxically, diplomatic attempts to enforce religious equality in the Ottoman Empire and the emerging Christian states of the Balkans reflected a willingness to recognise these powers as fully fledged members of the emerging international system, provided that they adopted certain constitutional norms. Morocco was given greater latitude, because diplomats and Western observers ultimately believed it incapable of making this leap.