Predator-Prey Interactions: A Multilevel Analysis of the Bat-Moth Arms Race

摘要食虫蝙蝠和它们的猎物之间的相互作用可以被认为是一场进化的军备竞赛。蝙蝠以先进的高频声纳的进化开始了这场竞赛，它们用这种声纳回声定位飞行的昆虫，在太空中跟踪它们，并最终吃掉它们。许多夜间活动的昆虫，包括飞蛾，都通过声纳探测设备--耳朵--的进化来对抗，这种设备会提醒昆虫注意蝙蝠接近时的回声定位叫声。飞蛾采取绕圈、螺旋和动力潜水的形式进行躲避，随后发生了一场令人印象深刻的捕食者和猎物之间的特技“狗斗”。虎蛾(鳞翅目：角蛾科)为这场争斗增添了新的转折。虎蛾用一系列强烈的超声波敲击蝙蝠来回应蝙蝠，这种声音是由一对被称为鼓膜的胸部结构产生的。三十多年来，研究人员一直试图确定虎蛾为什么会回答蝙蝠。目前有三种关于声音工作的最接近机制的理论。首先，飞蛾可能发出惊吓蝙蝠的声音，使它们在空战中获得暂时的优势。其次，蝙蝠可能会发出模仿蛾子回声的声音，但时机不合适，从而干扰蝙蝠复杂的超声波回声定位系统。第三种可能性是，虎蛾发出声音警告，它们不是美味的食物，就像昆虫用鲜艳的颜色警告视觉捕食者它们是有毒的一样。这些假设并不被认为是相互排斥的，它们可能都同时起作用。拟议中的实验将把这三个理论提升到一个新的水平--从关于机制的近似问题到关于行为进化的最终问题。使用两种新的方法--一种学习方法和一种系统发育方法--将确定鼓膜的选择优势。实验室实验中，蝙蝠与昆虫在有或没有化学防御或声音的情况下进行对抗，将揭示学习是如何塑造蝙蝠和飞蛾的声学相互作用的。然后将使用分支学方法来探索鼓膜起源的时间、地点和方式，以及为什么它们自起源以来一直保持了数百万年。这些问题的答案不仅将解释蝙蝠-虎蛾进化的迷人细节，还将说明Keystone行为创新如何使一个约11,000种物种在相对捕食的自由空间暂时逃脱捕食和辐射。这些实验的结果将通过一个专门研究“蝙蝠和虫子”互动的新网站与小学生分享。这些信息还将被添加到与佛罗里达州普莱西德湖附近的阿奇博尔德生物站合作开发的令人兴奋的新生态和环境课程中。

Abstract The interactions of insectivorous bats and their prey can be thought of as an evolutionary arms race. Bats began the race with the evolution of sophisticated, high frequency sonar with which they echolocate flying insects, track them through space, and ultimately eat them. Many nocturnal insects including moths countered with the evolution of sonar detection devices - ears - that alert insects to the echolocation cries of approaching bats. Moths take evasive action in the form of loops, spirals, and power dives and an impressive aerobatic "dog fight" between predator and prey ensues. Tiger moths (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) have added a new twist to the fray. Tiger moths answer bats with a series of intense ultrasonic clicks produced by paired thoracic structures called tymbals. For over thirty years researchers have attempted to determine why tiger moths answer bats. There are currently three theories about the proximate mechanisms by which the sounds work. First, it is possible that moths produce sounds that startle bats, giving them a momentary advantage in aerial combat. Second, bats may jam the sophisticated ultrasonic echolocation system of bats by sending out sounds that mimic moth echoes but with inappropriate timing. The third possibility is that tiger moths send out an acoustic warning that they are not palatable food items, much as insects use bright colors to warn visual predators that they are noxious. These hypotheses are not considered mutually exclusive and they may all work simultaneously. The proposed experiments will take the three theories to the next level - from the level of proximate questions about mechanism to the level of ultimate questions about the evolution of behavior. Using two novel approaches - a learning approach and a phylogenetic approach - the selective advantages of tymbals will be determined. Laboratory experiments in which bats are pitted against insects with and without chemical defenses or sound will reveal how learning has shaped bat-moth acoustic interactions. Cladistic methods will then be used to explore when, where, and how tymbals originated and why they have been maintained for millions of years since their origin. The answers to these question will not only explain the fascinating details of bat-tiger moth evolution, they will also illustrate how a keystone behavioral innovation has allowed a temporary escape from predation and the radiation of a clade of ~11,000 species in relatively predatory free space. The results of these experiments will be shared with grade school children through a new website dedicated to the interactions of "Bats and Bugs". The information will also be added to an exciting new ecological and environmental curriculum being developed in cooperation with the Archbold Biological Station near Lake Placid, Florida.