Resistance and Restoration: A History of Ecological Restoration in the US and Canada

生态恢复在过去的世纪中被忽视，在过去的二十年中得到了迅速的发展。现在，人们普遍认为，在保护从城市公园到国家森林和公园等大型荒野地区的自然景观方面，它发挥着至关重要的作用。与此同时，它作为对养护和生活质量具有深远影响的新环境范例的基础，正得到越来越多的承认。然而，在这一点上，很少有研究恢复的历史，并没有系统的探索恢复的发展在最近的时期，最戏剧性的发展和接受作为一种保护策略。本研究的目的是提供一个恢复的发展概况，提供了这些最新的发展，并把它们的背景下，早期的发展和历史的恢复性形式的土地管理一般。由于这是一个广泛的主题，研究将集中在狭义上的恢复的发展，试图恢复历史生态系统或景观的所有属性，而不管它们对人类的利益或价值。这种恢复形式或模式-Jordan和Hall称之为整体恢复-具有特别的知识价值，因为它为评价其他恢复性土地管理形式提供了一个概念核心或参考点，而且因为强调这种形式的恢复一直是过去几十年恢复运动的显著特点。这项研究也是智力上的重要，因为一个显着的特点是它的重点是发现恢复作为一个创造价值的背景下，包括它的环境价值和它的价值作为一种研究技术，当然，也是它的价值作为一种创造和传递超越价值的方式，如社区，意义和地方感。修复历史的一个重要方面是，从二十世纪早期的“发明”到世纪最后几十年发现并自觉实现其价值，其间有相当长的间隔-大约半个世纪。本研究将探讨四个亚文化-研究人员，从业人员，决策者和环境倡导者-的相互作用和有时相互竞争的利益和观点如何影响恢复的发展和发现。由于很明显，从业人员在这一过程中发挥了重要作用，而且他们的贡献在同行评议文献中严重不足，因此本研究将在很大程度上依赖访谈来记录过去几十年的发展。这项研究将有助于填补现有账户和当前对环境历史的理解中日益明显的空白，首次系统地介绍这一重要领域的关键近期发展。这项研究的影响是广泛的，因为它将提供一个广阔的历史视角恢复在其发展的关键时刻作为一门学科。它将有助于澄清关于恢复的特性和价值及其与其他形式的土地管理的关系的思考。它还将提供一个基础和历史背景，使参与其不断发展的利益集团之间建立更密切和更富有成效的关系。

Ignored for most of the past century, ecological restoration has developed rapidly during the past two decades. It is now widely understood to have a crucial role to play in the conservation of natural landscapes in settings ranging from urban parks to large wilderness areas such as national forests and parks. At the same time, it is gaining recognition as the basis for a new environmental paradigm with profound implications for conservation and the quality of life. At this point, however, there has been little research on the history of restoration, and no systematic exploration of the development of restoration during the period of its recent, and most dramatic development and acceptance as a conservation strategy. The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of the development of restoration, providing an account of these recent developments and placing them in the context of earlier developments and the history of restorative forms of land management generally. Since the topic is a wide one, the study will concentrate on the development of restoration in the narrow sense of an attempt to restore all the attributes of an historic ecosystem or landscape, regardless of their interest or value to humans. This form, or mode of restoration--what Jordan and Hall have termed holistic restoration--is of particular intellectual merit because it provides a conceptual core or reference point for the evaluation of other, restorative forms of land management, and because emphasis on restoration in this form has been the distinguishing feature of the restoration movement of the past few decades. This study is also intellectually significant because a distinctive feature is its emphasis on the discovery of restoration as a context for the creation of value, including its value for the environment and its value as a research technique, of course, but also its value as a way of creating and transmitting transcendent values such as community, meaning and sense of place. An important aspect of the history of restoration was the considerable interval--roughly a half- century--between its "invention" early in the twentieth century and the discovery and self-conscious realization of its value during the closing decades of the century. This study will explore the ways in which the interacting and sometimes competing interests and perspectives of four subcultures--researchers, practitioners, decision makers and advocates for the environment--influenced the development and discovery of restoration. Since it is clear that practitioners played an important role in this process, and also that their contribution is seriously under-represented in peer-reviewed literature, the study will rely heavily on interviews to document developments of the past few decades. The study will help fill an increasingly obvious gap in existing accounts and current understanding of environmental history, providing the first systematic account of crucial recent development in this important field. The impacts of this study are broad, for it will provide an expansive historical perspective on restoration at a critical time in its development as a discipline. It will help clarify thinking about the identity and value of restoration and about its relationship with other forms of land management. It will also provide a basis and historical context for closer and more productive relationships among the interest groups involved in its ongoing development.