Contractarian/Contractualist Theories from Giles of Rome to John Locke (c. 1280 - 1690)

我们致力于我们的社区、我们的国家的原因是什么？我们的国家及其政府是如何合法化的？该项目试图表明，在大约1280年至1690年的整个时期，对这些问题都有真正的契约主义/契约主义哲学答案。在这种情况下，“契约主义者”或“契约主义者”指的是这样一种理论，它假定初始状态是不足的，一致同意离开初始状态，而最终状态是充分的。这一契约主义/契约论的形式在所涉时期有所不同，但相对保持不变。第一个可行的假设是，正是嵌入到社会、人类学和规范的语境中，才赋予了仅仅是争论的共识必要的道义力量。这些不同的功能嵌入将在项目中进行研究。另一个可行的假设是，在霍布斯和洛克那里，这些根植于他们的经验主义的东西，赋予了契约主义/契约主义更大的力量：通过对善的个体化和去实体化，通过幸福概念的开放式，以及通过获得金钱的平民主义理论，签订社会契约变得比在原则上将人视为动物公民/社会的理论更紧迫。但是，契约主义/契约主义嵌入性的这些变化也植根于13、14和15世纪，例如，托马斯·阿奎那的亚里士多德的原始经验主义，奥卡姆对新的和创新的特殊政治欣赏，奥利维对规范及其关系社会本体论的去实体化，以及奥利维对资本积累的欣赏。拟议的项目将用于追踪契约主义/契约论中的不连续性和连续性，从而展示中世纪晚期和早期现代契约论模型的系统性，包括早期形式的契约主义/契约论(如奥卡姆或马西留斯的)是否在某些方面优于17世纪的契约/契约论。此外，这项工作应该有助于理解约1280年至1690年之间的发展变化和创新中的哪些仍然塑造着我们的当今时代。尤其是考察早期的理论，例如苏亚雷斯或马西留斯的理论，这些理论本质上不那么个人主义或原子主义，不致力于无限增长和通俗的幸福概念，有助于克服今天的片面性--特别是考虑到当前的多重社会危机，这些危机的根源除其他外，是在17世纪设定的过程中。

What is the reason for our commitment to our community, to our state? How are our state and its government legitimized? The project attempts to show that there have been genuinely contractualist/contractarian philosophical answers to these questions throughout the whole period from about 1280 to 1690. In this context, "contractualist" or “contractarian” refers to a theory that assumes a deficient initial state, a consensus to leave it, and a sufficient final state. The form of this contractualist/contractarian argument is varied over the period covered, but remains relatively constant. The first working hypothesis is that it is the embedding in social, anthropological, and normative contexts that gives the mere consensus of the argument the necessary deontic force. These diverse functional embeddings will be investigated in the project. A further working hypothesis is that in Hobbes and Locke, then, these very embeddings, stemming from their empiricism, give contractarianism/contractualism greater force: through an individualization and de-substantialization of the good, through an open-endedness of the conception of happiness, and through a pleonectic theory of the acquisition of money, the entering into a social contract becomes more urgent than in theories that view man in principle as an animal civile/sociale. But these changes in the embeddedness of contractualism/contractarianism are also grounded in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, e.g., in Thomas Aquinas's Aristotelian proto-empiricism, in Ockham's particular political appreciation of the new and innovative, in Olivi's de-substantialization of the normative and its relational social ontology, and in Olivi's appreciation of the accumulation of capital. The proposed project will serve to trace the discontinuities and continuities in contractualist/contractarian theorizing, and thus to show how systematically viable late medieval and early modern contract-theoretical models are, including whether earlier forms of contractualism/contractarianism (such as Ockham’s or Marsilius’s) are in some respects superior to those of the seventeenth century. Moreover, the work should help to understand which of the changes and innovations of the development between ca. 1280 to 1690 still shape our present time. It would be desirable that especially the examination of earlier theories, e.g. of Suárez or Marsilius, which are less individualistic or atomistic in nature and do not commit themselves to unlimited growth and a pleonectic conception of happiness, helps to overcome today's one-sidedness - especially in view of the current multiple social crises, which have their origin, among other things, in the course set by the 17th century.