Cognitive function in HIV-exposed uninfected children in rural Zimbabwe

撒哈拉以南非洲地区三分之二的儿童没有充分发挥他们的潜力，这意味着他们在学校的表现会更差，成人智商更低，就业前景也更糟糕。找出潜在的原因将使我们能够及早进行干预，以增强他们的大脑发育、学习和生活机会。全球有1500万儿童未感染艾滋病毒，这意味着他们的母亲感染了艾滋病毒，但他们自己避免了感染艾滋病毒。这些由艾滋病毒阳性母亲所生的艾滋病毒阴性儿童，与艾滋病毒阴性母亲所生的孩子相比，在2岁时儿童发育较差，但我们不知道原因。我们从出生起就跟踪了津巴布韦农村的一大群儿童，我们的结果显示，7岁的HEU儿童的智力测试分数仍然低于未接触艾滋病毒的儿童。我们现在想要了解受影响的大脑功能的范围，了解为什么这种差异在学龄儿童仍然存在，并看看早期生活干预方案(提高了2岁时的考试成绩)是否对10岁前的HEU儿童有持续的好处。我们将通过一系列测试和谜题，评估他们的语言技能，以及关于行为和心理健康问题的问卷，对10岁的儿童进行详细的大脑功能测试。在一些儿童中，我们将通过将电线连接到计算机上的帽子放在头部来测量他们的脑电模式。通过在做心理测试的同时测量大脑不同部位的电模式，我们可以直接比较HEU和未接触HIV的儿童的大脑功能。然后我们将探索HEU儿童认知能力下降的可能原因。首先，我们认为艾滋病毒暴露会扰乱人体肠道和大脑之间的一些交流。这在一定程度上是通过被称为代谢物的化学物质发生的，这些代谢物是由肠道细菌产生的，并受到饮食的影响。我们已经证明，HEU儿童的肠道细菌类型与未接触艾滋病毒的儿童不同，这可能会影响他们产生的代谢物，进而影响大脑发育的方式。HEU儿童也有过度的炎症(身体对感染或伤害的反应)，这可能会损害发育中的大脑。我们将使用储存的血液样本(在这些孩子18个月大时收集)来比较代谢物、炎症和神经细胞损伤的标志。其次，我们认为儿童的环境会影响他们的大脑发育方式，因此我们将收集关于儿童的生活、照顾者的养育和他们的家庭状况的信息，以比较HEU和未接触HIV的儿童的生活状况。最后，我们将观察在HEU儿童出生后的头两年提供的一揽子干预措施是否对他们10岁时的认知有长期的好处。这些儿童在早期生活中被随机(像掷硬币一样)接受营养补充剂或不接受营养补充剂，以及是否改善家庭用水、卫生设施和个人卫生(洗涤)。当我们在2岁时评估他们的大脑发育时，同时接受营养补充剂和改进的WASH的HEU儿童的测试成绩要好得多。现在，我们想知道这种影响是否会持续10年，以及这些干预措施是否通过改善肠道沟通和为大脑提供营养的方式发挥了作用。如果我们发现营养和洗涤干预在10岁时仍然有效，这就为所有感染艾滋病毒的儿童扩大这些策略提供了强有力的证据。如果我们看到的早期生活益处无法持续，我们需要找到新的方法。无论如何，该项目将发现早期生活中需要解决的因素，以确保所有儿童都能成为健康和富有成效的成年人。

Two-thirds of children in sub-Saharan Africa do not develop to their full potential, meaning they will do less well at school, have lower adult IQ and poorer job prospects. Identifying the underlying reasons would allow us to intervene early to enhance their brain development, learning and life chances. 15 million children globally are HIV-exposed uninfected, or HEU, meaning they were born to mothers with HIV infection, but avoided being infected with HIV themselves. These HIV-negative children, born to HIV-positive mothers, have poorer child development at 2 years of age compared to children born to HIV-negative mothers, but we do not know why. We have been following a large group of children in rural Zimbabwe from birth, and our results show that 7 year old HEU children continue to have lower intelligence test scores than HIV-unexposed children. We now want to understand the range of brain functions that are affected, understand why this difference is still seen at school-age, and see whether an early life package of interventions (which improved test scores at age 2yrs) have a sustained benefit for HEU children by age 10 years. We will do detailed testing of children's brain function at age 10, through a range of tests and puzzles, an assessment of their language skills, and questionnaires about behavioural and mental health problems. In some children, we will measure their brain electrical patterns using a cap placed on the head with wires linked to a computer. By measuring electrical patterns in different parts of the brain while doing psychological tests, we can directly compare how the brain functions in HEU and HIV-unexposed children.We will then explore possible reasons for reduced cognition in HEU children. First, we believe HIV exposure disrupts some of the body's communication between the gut and the brain. This occurs partly through chemicals called metabolites which are produced by gut bacteria and are influenced by diet. We have shown that the types of gut bacteria in HEU children are different to HIV-unexposed children, and this may affect the metabolites they make, which in turn influences the way the brain develops. HEU children also have excess inflammation (the body's response to infection or injury) which may damage the developing brain. We will use stored blood samples (collected when these children were 18 months old) to compare metabolites, inflammation and markers of damage to nerve cells. Second, we believe the child's environment influences the way their brain develops, so we will collect information about the child's life, their caregiver's nurturing, and their household situation, to compare the living conditions of HEU and HIV-unexposed children. Finally, we will see whether a package of interventions, which were delivered to HEU children in the first 2 years of life, has a long-lasting benefit on their cognition at age 10 years. These children were randomised (like the flip of a coin) in early life to receive nutritional supplements or not, and improvements in household water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) or not. HEU children who received both the nutritional supplements plus the improved WASH had much better test scores when we assessed their brain development at 2 years of age. Now we want to see if this effect lasts to 10 years and whether these interventions might have worked by improving the way the gut communicates and provides nutrients for the brain.If we find that nutrition and WASH interventions still have benefits at age 10, this provides powerful evidence for scaling up these strategies for all HIV-exposed children. If the early-life benefits that we saw are not sustained, we need to find new approaches. Either way, this project will discover factors in early life that need to be tackled to ensure that all children can become healthy and productive adults.