Biocultural collections and networks of knowledge exchange in the 19th century: the quest for quinine

世卫组织将疟疾描述为“人类历史上最大的杀手疾病”。虽然直到世纪末人们才了解其病因，但自古以来人们就认识到其发热症状。在17世纪30年代至1930年代期间，欧洲及其帝国领土上使用的最有效的治疗方法是金鸡纳树皮中含有的奎宁生物碱。金鸡纳树生长在安第斯山脉的东坡，因此两个世纪以来，金鸡纳树皮的进口受到不确定的、往往是垄断性的供应链的限制，以及对金鸡纳树的植物学和化学知识的有限。然而，在1850年至1870年期间，人们发现、收集和移植了大量的桉树，导致在印度、爪哇和整个热带地区建立了大型种植园，挽救了数百万人的生命。虽然这个故事的结果是清楚的，但使有效的生物勘探成为可能的关键过程几乎没有研究; Honigsbaum在移植方面的工作和Veale在印度种植园的工作只是反映了故事的开始和结束。特别是，目前还不清楚金鸡纳的植物学和化学是如何解决的，以及这种新的理解如何形成了一个有效的植物探索计划，并为印度和欧洲的使用和出口开发了标准化形式的奎宁。该项目旨在证明收集的证据在解决这些问题方面的价值。步行者（这个项目的指定学生）和内斯韦尔对基尤的经济植物学收藏的初步工作表明，树皮标本在伦敦内外的流通是新知识发展的基础。标本本身有大量注释（通常附有生物碱分析），可以与记录关键网络发展的档案记录联系起来，这反映了标本学家（疟疾专家）之间既定的工作方式和标本交换模式。约翰艾略特霍华德，著名的医药批发商和独立的科学家，出现作为一个关键人物连接的地缘政治需要的印度办事处，商业制药部门，植物学家在基尤，分析化学家在伦敦和印度。该项目的方法是基于基尤的档案和实物收藏。该项目将从一个集合方法开始，以发展基尤金鸡纳收藏（世界上最大的），并考虑子收藏和标本如何映射到基尤、伦敦大都会档案馆和皇家药学会（其中存放了霍华德的大部分论文和许多官方报告）的档案和图书馆资料。这将成为成功转让树木和开发药物的案例研究的基础。对选定的欧洲收藏品的研究将提供关于标本流通的进一步数据。 该项目是在国家生产力投资基金的重点医疗和工业创新的研究框架内。它的目的是解锁的故事和推广潜力的博物馆收藏的巨大意义，为19世纪世纪的健康和经济。它也直接回应了对跨学科研究的重视：该项目的共同定位将使基尤及其海外合作伙伴（例如哥本哈根）的STEM植物学家能够进行强有力的互动，同时借鉴了广泛的人文领域，包括历史地理学，科学和医学史，帝国史和环境史。

Malaria has been described by WHO as the 'greatest killer disease in human history'. Although its causation was not understood until the end of the 19th century, its symptoms of fever have been recognised since antiquity. In the period from the 1630s to 1930s, by far the most effective treatment used in Europe and its imperial territories was the quinine alkaloids, contained in the bark of the cinchona tree. Cinchona trees grow high on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and thus for two centuries import of cinchona bark was constrained by uncertain, often monopolistic supply chains, and by limited knowledge of the botany and chemistry of the tree. However, in the period 1850-1870 alkaloid-rich trees were identified, collected and transplanted, leading to the establishment of large plantations in India, Java and throughout the tropics, and the saving of millions of lives. Although the outcomes of this story are clear, the crucial processes that enabled effective bioprospection have been barely researched; Honigsbaum's work on transplantation and Veale's on the Indian plantations simply reflect the beginning and end of the story. In particular, it remains unclear how the botany and chemistry of cinchona were resolved, and in what ways this new understanding shaped an effective programme of plant exploration and the development of standardised forms of quinine for Indian and European use and export. The project seeks to demonstrate the value of collections-based evidence in addressing such questions. Preliminary work by Walker (named student for this project) and Nesbitt on Kew's Economic Botany Collection shows that the circulation of bark specimens in and out of London was fundamental to the development of new knowledge. Reflecting well-established ways of working and patterns of exchange of specimens among quinologists (malaria experts), the specimens themselves are heavily annotated (often with alkaloid analyses) and can be linked to archival records which document the development of key networks. John Eliot Howard, prominent pharmaceutical wholesaler and independent scientist, emerges as a key figure connecting the geopolitical imperatives of the India Office, the commercial pharmaceutical sector, botanists at Kew, and analytical chemists in London and India. The methodology of the project is grounded in Kew's archival and object collections. The project will start with an assemblage approach to the development of the Kew cinchona collection (the largest in the world), and consider how sub-collections and specimens map onto archive and library material at Kew, London Metropolitan Archives and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society (which between them house most of Howard's papers, and many official reports). This will form the basis for case studies of the successful transfer of trees and development of medicines. Research in selected European collections will provide further data on specimen circulation. The project is framed within the National Productivity Investment Fund's emphasis on the study of medical and industrial innovation. It is designed to unlock the stories and outreach potential of a museum collection of immense significance for 19th century health and the economy. It also responds directly to the emphasis on interdisciplinary research: the co-location of the project will enable strong interaction with STEM botanists at Kew and its overseas partners (e.g. at Copenhagen) while drawing on approaches from a wide range of humanities fields including historical geography, history of science and medicine, imperial history and environmental history.