Stress, Coping And Personality In Aging Men And Women

所有关于人格的研究，包括其起源、普遍性和发展，其基础都在于对人格结构的描述。特质的组织为系统研究特质心理学的各个方面提供了一个框架。尽管五因素人格模型被广泛认为提供了一个必要且合理充分的特征分类，但一些研究人员认为，这五个因素本身是由一个更高的双因素模型组织的，其中一个因素是外向和开放，另一个因素是宜人性、尽职尽责和神经质。这样的结构在自我报告研究中被广泛发现，包括我们对12至13岁儿童的人格研究。但是，当对单个个体使用单一的测量方法时，不可能确定双因素结构是代表特征(实质)的真实协变还是仅仅是测量中的偏差(人工制品)。在一项对双胞胎的个性进行的合作研究中，我们使用自我报告和告密者评级，发现了更一致的证据来解释人工制品。五因素模型似乎反映了特质结构的最高水平；较高的水平是由于测量上的偏差。 该实验室以前的研究已经考察了民族性格刻板印象的起源和准确性。最近的一项研究考察了全球领导力和组织行为有效性(GLOBAL)量表，以进一步解释民族性格类型的目标。 全球领导力与组织行为有效性(GLOBAL)研究项目是对文化背景下的组织领导力的大规模研究。这项在62个国家收集的部分调查旨在从典型做法和价值观方面描述整个文化的特征。九个社会实践量表中有四个似乎直接或间接地评估个性特征。这些全球尺度要求描述典型的人格特征，这些特征可能被解释为对国家性格的判断。对民族性格的评分反映了文化认同和社会动态，但之前的研究表明，它们与文化成员的平均人格特征无关。文化层面的分析表明，这些全球量表更好地被解释为毫无根据的刻板印象，而不是对社会成员人格特征的实际描述。 在进一步的研究中，我们考虑了其他国家对美国人看法的预测。与评估性假说相反，我们发现，大多数国家的公民都将合意和不合意的特征归因于美国人，这一假说假设友好国家会将令人满意的特征归因于美国人，而敌对国家会将不受欢迎的特征归因于美国人。一项新的多国研究包括对年龄组、性别和国家的刻板印象进行评估。初步分析表明，(A)年龄比性别或文化在决定对一个群体的看法方面更重要；(B)年龄陈规定型观念在年龄变化的方向上通常是准确的，但不是在时间上；(C)典型文化成员的陈规定型观念可以通过对特定年龄和性别的国家陈规定型观念的总和来近似。这些分析将提供有关陈规定型观念在什么情况下准确或不准确的重要新信息。 不同文化之间的人格特征比较为综合或平均人格得分的准确性提供了一些最有力的证据。但有许多不同的衡量标准可以用来评估个人资料协议。在一项使用532个人的自我报告和观察者评级的研究中，评估了几种不同的概况一致性统计数据区分匹配(即，涉及同一个人的自我报告和观察者评级)和不匹配的自我报告和观察者评级对的能力。组内相关性最好，简单的皮尔逊相关性紧随其后。在比较不同文化的个性特征时，组内相关性似乎是选择的指标。

The basis of all studies of personality, including its origins, universality, and development, lies in the description of personality structure. The organization of traits provides a framework for systematic research on all aspects of trait psychology. Although the Five-Factor Model of personality is widely recognized as providing a necessary and reasonably sufficient classification of traits, some researchers have argued that the five factors are themselves organized by a higher, two-factor model, in which Extraversion and Openness form one factor, and Agreeableness and Conscientiousness vs. Neuroticism define the other. Such a structure is widely found in self-report studies, including our study of personality in 12- to 13-year-olds. But when a single method of measurement is used in single individuals, it is impossible to determine whether the two-factor structure represents the real covariation of traits (substance) or simply biases in measurement (artifact). In a collaborative study examining personality in twins and using both self-reports and informant ratings, we found much more consistent evidence for the artifact interpretation. It appears that the Five-Factor Model reflects the highest level of trait structure; higher levels are due to biases in measurement. Previous research in this Laboratory has examined the origins and accuracy of national character stereotypes. A recent study examined the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE)scales to further the goals of interpretation of national character sterotypes. The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) Research Program is a large-scale study of organizational leadership in cultural context. Parts of the survey gathered in 62 nations were intended to characterize the culture as a whole in terms of typical practices and values. Four of the nine Societal Practices scales seem, directly or indirectly, to assess features of personality. These GLOBE scales ask for descriptions of typical personality traits that might be interpreted as judgments of national character. Ratings of national character reflect cultural identities and social dynamics, but previous research suggests that they are unrelated to the mean personality traits of the culture's members. Analyses at the culture level comparing GLOBE scales with aggregate assessed personality traits (n = 34) and with measures of perceived national character (n = 33) showed that these GLOBE scales are better construed as unfounded stereotypes than as actual depictions of the society members' personality traits. In a further study, we considered the prediction of other nations' views of Americans. Contrary to the evaluative hypothesis, which assumes that desirable traits will be attributed to Americans by friendly nations and undesirable traits by hostile nations, we found that both desirable and undesirable traits were attributed to Americans by citizens of most countries. A new multinational study includes assessments of stereotypes of age groups and genders as well as nations. Preliminary analyses suggest that (a) age is more important that gender or culture in determining perceptions of a group; (b) age stereotypes are generally accurate in the direction of age changes, but not the timing; and (c) the stereotype of the typical culture member can be approximated by summing across age- and gender-specific national stereotypes. These analyses will provide important new information on the conditions under which stereotypes are, or are not, accurate. Comparisons of personality profiles across cultures provide some of the strongest evidence of the accuracy of aggregate, or average, personality scores. But there are a number of different metrics by which profile agreement can be assessed. In a study using self-reports and observer ratings of 532 individuals, the ability of several different profile agreement statistics to distinguish matched (i.e., the self-report and observer rating concerned the same individual) from mismatched pairs of self-reports and observer ratings was assessed. Intraclass correlations proved the best, with simple Pearson correlations a close second. In comparing personality profiles across cultures, intraclass correlations appear to be the metric of choice.