Human Health and Ocean Pollution.
Human Health and Ocean Pollution.
复制标题
人类健康和海洋污染。
DOI：
10.5334/aogh.2831
复制
发表时间：
2020-12-03
影响因子：
2.9
通讯作者：
Rampal P
中科院分区：
文献类型：
--
作者：
Landrigan PJ;Stegeman JJ;Fleming LE;Allemand D;Anderson DM;Backer LC;Brucker-Davis F;Chevalier N;Corra L;Czerucka D;Bottein MD;Demeneix B;Depledge M;Deheyn DD;Dorman CJ;Fénichel P;Fisher S;Gaill F;Galgani F;Gaze WH;Giuliano L;Grandjean P;Hahn ME;Hamdoun A;Hess P;Judson B;Laborde A;McGlade J;Mu J;Mustapha A;Neira M;Noble RT;Pedrotti ML;Reddy C;Rocklöv J;Scharler UM;Shanmugam H;Taghian G;van de Water JAJM;Vezzulli L;Weihe P;Zeka A;Raps H;Rampal P
污染——人类活动向空气、水和土地释放的有害废物——是当今世界导致疾病的最大环境原因。据估计，它每年造成 900 万人过早死亡、巨大的经济损失、人力资本侵蚀和生态系统退化。海洋污染是全球污染的一个重要组成部分，但尚未得到充分认识和控制。它对人类健康和福祉构成严重威胁。人们才刚刚开始了解这些影响的性质和严重程度。 (1) 广泛研究海洋污染对人类健康的已知和潜在影响。 (2) 向政策制定者、政府领导人、国际组织、民间社会和全球公众通报这些威胁。 （3）提出控制和预防海洋污染、保障人类健康的干预重点。以主题为中心的审查，研究海洋污染对人类健康的影响，找出知识差距，预测未来趋势，并为有效干预提供基于证据的指导。海洋污染广泛存在，而且日益严重，而且在大多数国家，污染控制不力。它是有毒金属、塑料、化学制品、石油、城市和工业废物、农药、化肥、医药化学品、农业径流和污水的复杂混合物。超过 80% 来自陆地来源。它通过河流、径流、大气沉降和直接排放到达海洋。它通常在沿海地区最严重，并且最集中在低收入和中等收入国家的沿海地区。塑料是海洋污染中一个快速增长且高度可见的组成部分，估计每年有 1000 万吨塑料废物进入海洋。汞是海洋中最受关注的金属污染物；它的释放有两个主要来源：煤炭燃烧和小规模金矿开采。随着化肥使用量的增加，工业化农业在全球蔓延，导致有害藻华 (HAB) 扩展到以前未受影响的地区。化学污染物无处不在，污染着从北极高地到深海深处的海洋和海洋生物。海洋污染对海洋生态系统产生多重负面影响，而全球气候变化加剧了这些影响。石油基污染物会减少海洋微生物产生氧气的光合作用。海洋吸收二氧化碳的增加导致海洋酸化，从而破坏珊瑚礁，损害贝类发育，溶解海洋食物网底部的含钙微生物，并增加某些污染物的毒性。塑料污染威胁着海洋哺乳动物、鱼类和海鸟，并在大洋中环流中积累。它分解成含有多种人造化学物质的微塑料和纳米塑料颗粒，这些化学物质可以进入海洋生物的组织，包括人类消耗的物种。工业排放、径流和污水增加了有害细菌、细菌污染和抗菌药物耐药性的发生频率和严重程度。污染和海面变暖正在引发弧菌等危险病原体向极地迁移。工业排放、制药废物、杀虫剂和污水导致全球鱼类资源减少。甲基汞和多氯联苯是海洋污染物，其对人类健康的影响最为人们所了解。母亲食用受污染的海鲜，使子宫内的婴儿接触到这些污染物，可能会损害发育中的大脑，降低智商，并增加儿童患自闭症、多动症和学习障碍的风险。成人接触甲基汞会增加患心血管疾病和痴呆的风险。人造化学品——邻苯二甲酸盐、双酚A、阻燃剂和全氟化学品，其中许多是从塑料废物中释放到海洋中的——会扰乱内分泌信号，降低男性生育能力，损害神经系统，并增加患癌症的风险。 HAB 产生强效毒素，积聚在鱼类和贝类中。摄入后，这些毒素会导致严重的神经损伤和快速死亡。 HAB 毒素也会通过空气传播并引起呼吸道疾病。致病性海洋细菌会引起胃肠道疾病和深部伤口感染。随着气候变化和污染加剧，包括霍乱在内的弧菌感染频率增加并扩展到新地区的风险很高。海洋污染对健康的所有影响不成比例地落在南半球的弱势群体身上——这是全球范围内的环境不公正。海洋污染是一个全球性问题。它有多种来源并且跨越国界。这是鲁莽、短视和不可持续地开发地球资源的结果。它危害海洋生态系统。它阻碍大气中氧气的产生。它对人类健康的威胁是巨大的，而且还在不断增加，但人们仍未完全了解。它的经济成本才刚刚开始计算。海洋污染是可以预防的。与所有形式的污染一样，海洋污染可以通过部署基于针对优先污染源的法律、政策、技术和执法的数据驱动策略来控制。许多国家已经使用这些工具来控制空气和水污染，现在正将其应用于海洋污染。迄今为止取得的成功表明，更广泛的控制是可行的。污染严重的港口得到了清理，河口焕发了活力，珊瑚礁也得到了恢复。预防海洋污染可以带来很多好处。它促进经济发展，增加旅游业，帮助恢复渔业，并改善人类健康和福祉。它推进可持续发展目标（SDG）。这些好处将持续几个世纪。世界领导人认识到海洋污染的严重性，认识到其日益严重的危险，让民间社会和全球公众参与进来，并采取大胆、循证的行动从源头阻止污染，对于防止海洋污染和保障人类健康至关重要。预防陆源污染是关键。消除煤炭燃烧并禁止汞的所有使用将减少汞污染。禁止使用一次性塑料和更好地管理塑料废物可以减少塑料污染。持久性有机污染物 (POP) 的禁令减少了 PCB 和 DDT 造成的污染。控制工业排放、处理污水和减少化肥施用减轻了沿海污染，并减少了赤潮发生的频率。事实证明，得到充足资金和强有力执法支持的国家、区域和国际海洋污染控制计划是有效的。强大的监控对于跟踪进度至关重要。前景广阔的进一步干预措施包括大规模转向可再生燃料；向循环经济转型，减少浪费，注重公平而不是无休止的增长；拥抱绿色化学原则；并建设所有国家的科学能力。指定海洋保护区（MPA）将保护重要的生态系统，保护脆弱的鱼类种群，并增进人类健康和福祉。创建海洋保护区是国家和国际承诺保护海洋健康的重要体现。
Pollution – unwanted waste released to air, water, and land by human activity – is the largest environmental cause of disease in the world today. It is responsible for an estimated nine million premature deaths per year, enormous economic losses, erosion of human capital, and degradation of ecosystems. Ocean pollution is an important, but insufficiently recognized and inadequately controlled component of global pollution. It poses serious threats to human health and well-being. The nature and magnitude of these impacts are only beginning to be understood. (1) Broadly examine the known and potential impacts of ocean pollution on human health. (2) Inform policy makers, government leaders, international organizations, civil society, and the global public of these threats. (3) Propose priorities for interventions to control and prevent pollution of the seas and safeguard human health. Topic-focused reviews that examine the effects of ocean pollution on human health, identify gaps in knowledge, project future trends, and offer evidence-based guidance for effective intervention. Pollution of the oceans is widespread, worsening, and in most countries poorly controlled. It is a complex mixture of toxic metals, plastics, manufactured chemicals, petroleum, urban and industrial wastes, pesticides, fertilizers, pharmaceutical chemicals, agricultural runoff, and sewage. More than 80% arises from land-based sources. It reaches the oceans through rivers, runoff, atmospheric deposition and direct discharges. It is often heaviest near the coasts and most highly concentrated along the coasts of low- and middle-income countries. Plastic is a rapidly increasing and highly visible component of ocean pollution, and an estimated 10 million metric tons of plastic waste enter the seas each year. Mercury is the metal pollutant of greatest concern in the oceans; it is released from two main sources – coal combustion and small-scale gold mining. Global spread of industrialized agriculture with increasing use of chemical fertilizer leads to extension of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) to previously unaffected regions. Chemical pollutants are ubiquitous and contaminate seas and marine organisms from the high Arctic to the abyssal depths. Ocean pollution has multiple negative impacts on marine ecosystems, and these impacts are exacerbated by global climate change. Petroleum-based pollutants reduce photosynthesis in marine microorganisms that generate oxygen. Increasing absorption of carbon dioxide into the seas causes ocean acidification, which destroys coral reefs, impairs shellfish development, dissolves calcium-containing microorganisms at the base of the marine food web, and increases the toxicity of some pollutants. Plastic pollution threatens marine mammals, fish, and seabirds and accumulates in large mid-ocean gyres. It breaks down into microplastic and nanoplastic particles containing multiple manufactured chemicals that can enter the tissues of marine organisms, including species consumed by humans. Industrial releases, runoff, and sewage increase frequency and severity of HABs, bacterial pollution, and anti-microbial resistance. Pollution and sea surface warming are triggering poleward migration of dangerous pathogens such as the Vibrio species. Industrial discharges, pharmaceutical wastes, pesticides, and sewage contribute to global declines in fish stocks. Methylmercury and PCBs are the ocean pollutants whose human health effects are best understood. Exposures of infants in utero to these pollutants through maternal consumption of contaminated seafood can damage developing brains, reduce IQ and increase children’s risks for autism, ADHD and learning disorders. Adult exposures to methylmercury increase risks for cardiovascular disease and dementia. Manufactured chemicals – phthalates, bisphenol A, flame retardants, and perfluorinated chemicals, many of them released into the seas from plastic waste – can disrupt endocrine signaling, reduce male fertility, damage the nervous system, and increase risk of cancer. HABs produce potent toxins that accumulate in fish and shellfish. When ingested, these toxins can cause severe neurological impairment and rapid death. HAB toxins can also become airborne and cause respiratory disease. Pathogenic marine bacteria cause gastrointestinal diseases and deep wound infections. With climate change and increasing pollution, risk is high that Vibrio infections, including cholera, will increase in frequency and extend to new areas. All of the health impacts of ocean pollution fall disproportionately on vulnerable populations in the Global South – environmental injustice on a planetary scale. Ocean pollution is a global problem. It arises from multiple sources and crosses national boundaries. It is the consequence of reckless, shortsighted, and unsustainable exploitation of the earth’s resources. It endangers marine ecosystems. It impedes the production of atmospheric oxygen. Its threats to human health are great and growing, but still incompletely understood. Its economic costs are only beginning to be counted. Ocean pollution can be prevented. Like all forms of pollution, ocean pollution can be controlled by deploying data-driven strategies based on law, policy, technology, and enforcement that target priority pollution sources. Many countries have used these tools to control air and water pollution and are now applying them to ocean pollution. Successes achieved to date demonstrate that broader control is feasible. Heavily polluted harbors have been cleaned, estuaries rejuvenated, and coral reefs restored. Prevention of ocean pollution creates many benefits. It boosts economies, increases tourism, helps restore fisheries, and improves human health and well-being. It advances the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). These benefits will last for centuries. World leaders who recognize the gravity of ocean pollution, acknowledge its growing dangers, engage civil society and the global public, and take bold, evidence-based action to stop pollution at source will be critical to preventing ocean pollution and safeguarding human health. Prevention of pollution from land-based sources is key. Eliminating coal combustion and banning all uses of mercury will reduce mercury pollution. Bans on single-use plastic and better management of plastic waste reduce plastic pollution. Bans on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have reduced pollution by PCBs and DDT. Control of industrial discharges, treatment of sewage, and reduced applications of fertilizers have mitigated coastal pollution and are reducing frequency of HABs. National, regional and international marine pollution control programs that are adequately funded and backed by strong enforcement have been shown to be effective. Robust monitoring is essential to track progress. Further interventions that hold great promise include wide-scale transition to renewable fuels; transition to a circular economy that creates little waste and focuses on equity rather than on endless growth; embracing the principles of green chemistry; and building scientific capacity in all countries. Designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) will safeguard critical ecosystems, protect vulnerable fish stocks, and enhance human health and well-being. Creation of MPAs is an important manifestation of national and international commitment to protecting the health of the seas.
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影响因子：
6.6
作者：
Adams, Nicolaus G.;Robertson, Alison;Trainer, Vera L.
通讯作者：
Trainer, Vera L.
影响因子：
6.6
作者：
Backer, LC;Fleming, LE;Baden, DG
通讯作者：
Baden, DG
影响因子：
4.6
作者：
Alava JJ;Cisneros-Montemayor AM;Sumaila UR;Cheung WWL
通讯作者：
Cheung WWL
影响因子：
17.3
作者：
Anderson DM;Cembella AD;Hallegraeff GM
通讯作者：
Hallegraeff GM
影响因子：
5.4
作者：
Almroth, Bethanie Carney;Eggert, Hakan
通讯作者：
Eggert, Hakan