Commentary: New developments in single photon detection in the short wavelength infrared regime
Commentary: New developments in single photon detection in the short wavelength infrared regime
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评论：短波长红外区域单光子探测的新进展
DOI：
10.1117/1.3314890
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发表时间：
2010
影响因子：
1.5
通讯作者：
Collins R
中科院分区：
文献类型：
--
作者：
Collins R
许多新的和令人兴奋的科学研究领域都依赖于对红外区单光子的有效探测。仅举两个例子，量子密钥分发有可能提供可验证的安全方法来生成加密密钥，主动成像技术允许创建遥远物体的详细3D模型。目前，这些技术中的许多技术使用波长范围为400至1000 nm的光子，这是由于在这些波长处使用的相对有效的单光子探测器的现成可用性（最近的调查可以在参考文献10中找到）。[1]和[2]）。然而，将波长范围扩展到1.3微米和1.55微米将带来许多好处，例如与低损耗光纤光谱区域和大气传输窗口的兼容性，以及红外气体吸收特性，特别是温室气体的吸收特性。让我们简要地考虑目前的潜在的单光子探测技术的光谱区域。目前，有三种主要类型的探测器技术广泛使用;光电倍增管，半导体雪崩光电二极管和超导探测器。在这些不同的技术中，有不同的材料系统和微结构设计，导致类似器械的关键性能特征广泛分布。这种检测器的一个品质因数是噪声等效功率（NEP），其定义为在一秒积分时间内获得单位信噪比所需的信号功率。光电倍增管（PMT）的工作原理是从初始的光生电子级联产生电子流。入射到光电阴极上的光子将以小于1的概率触发电子发射。该电子被加速朝向阳极，并在碰撞时触发大量二次电子的释放。这个过程通过一系列阳极重复，每次乘以电子总数，直到产生可检测的电流脉冲。这些装置具有大的光电阴极面积（通常为几mm 2的量级）和增益，增益取决于倍增器电极的几何形状和偏压。PMT通常使用波长低于本评论中所考虑波长的光子工作，但具有InGaAs光电阴极的器件（如Hamamatsu生产的器件）在冷却至210 K时，在1.55 µm波长下的NEP约为4× 10-16 W Hz− 1/2。最常见的基于晶闸管的器件是单光子雪崩二极管（SPAD）探测器，其是在盖革模式中偏置在雪崩击穿电压之上的反向偏置雪崩光电二极管（APD）。在这种操作模式下，单个入射光子可以产生电子-空穴对，该电子-空穴对可以引发自持雪崩，快速产生容易检测的电流脉冲。在每个事件之后，雪崩电流必须被淬灭以使探测器恢复到静止状态，准备好探测更多的光子。目前，基于砷化铟镓/磷化铟（InGaAs/InP）的探测器为近室温工作的SPAD提供了最好的前景。历史上，基于该材料系统的器件已被用作线性倍增器件，但盖革模式操作的最新进展已导致专门针对生产单光子探测器的目的的生长和制造工艺的发展[3]。
Many new and exciting fields of scientific research rely on the efficient detection of single photons in the infrared regime. To give just two examples, quantum key distribution has the potential to offer verifiably secure methods of generating cryptographic keys and active imaging techniques permit the creation of detailed 3D models of distant objects. Currently, many of these technologies use photons in the wavelength range 400 to 1000 nm due to the ready availability of relatively efficient single photon detectors for use at these wavelengths (recent surveys may be found in Refs.[1] and [2]). However, extending the wavelength range to 1.3 µm and 1.55 µm would result in many benefits, for example compatibility with lowloss optical fiber spectral regions and atmospheric transmission windows, as well as infrared gas absorption features, notably those of greenhouse gases. Let us briefly consider the current status of the potential single photon detection technologies available for this spectral region. Currently, there are three main types of detector technology in widespread use; photomultipliers, semiconductor avalanche photodiodes and superconducting detectors. Within these different technologies, there are different material systems and micro-structure designs leading to a wide spread in key performance characteristics for similar devices. One figure of merit for such detectors is the noise equivalent power (NEP), defined as the signal power required to attain a unity signal-to-noise ratio within a one second integration time. Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) operate by the cascade generation of a stream of electrons from an initial photo-generated electron. A photon incident on a photocathode will, with a probability less than unity, trigger the emission of an electron. This electron is accelerated towards an anode and, on collision, triggers the release of a number of secondary electrons. This process is repeated through a series of anodes, multiplying the total number of electrons each time, until a detectable current pulse is generated. These devices have large photocathode areas (typically of the order of a few mm2) and gain which depends on dynode geometry and bias. PMTs typically operate with photons at lower wavelengths than those considered in this commentary but devices with an InGaAs photocathode such as the those produced by Hamamatsu have demonstrated an NEP~ 4× 10-16 W Hz− ½ at a wavelength of 1.55 µm when cooled to 210 K.The most common semiconductor-based devices are single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors, which are reverse biased avalanche photodiodes (APDs) biased above the avalanche breakdown voltage in the Geiger mode. In this mode of operation, a single incident photon can generate an electron-hole pair which can initiate a self-sustaining avalanche, rapidly generating a readily detectable current pulse. After each event, the avalanche current must be quenched to restore the detector to the quiescent state ready to detect further photons. At present, detectors based on Indium-Gallium-Arsenide/Indium-Phosphide (InGaAs/InP) offer the best prospect for near room-temperature operation SPADs. Historically, devices based on this material system have been used as linear multiplication devices but more recent advances in Geiger mode operation have led to the development of a growth and fabrication process specifically targeted with the aim of producing single photon detectors [3].
影响因子：
3.8
作者：
S. Miki;M. Takeda;M. Fujiwara;M. Sasaki;Zhen Wang
通讯作者：
S. Miki;M. Takeda;M. Fujiwara;M. Sasaki;Zhen Wang
改进的在室温下运行的自由运行 InGaAs/InP 单光子雪崩二极管探测器
影响因子：
1.1
作者：
R. Warburton;M. Itzler;G. Buller
通讯作者：
G. Buller