George Starkey and American Science in the Scientific Revolution

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"I can see so far because I have stood on the shoulders of giants." Attributed to Isaac Newton though it probably originated in the Middle Ages, this statement has almost become a cliche in science. While not denigrating the role of genius in the advance of science, it is certainly true that science is a collective activity in which many persons contribute, some more, some less. It is important to understand the social organization of science and how scientists interact, drawing on and reacting to each others ideas. Dr. Newman, in his study of George Starkey, will be examining an especially interesting case of the interaction of scientists because Starkey, an American-educated alchemist, contributed to the advance of the Scientific Revolution. For, though we now consider alchemy a "pseudo- science" like astrology, alchemy in fact played an enormously important role in the development of Isaac Newton's thought and in the development of the new science of chemistry coming out of the work of Robert Boyle. Starkey, significantly, influenced Newton through his writings and actually worked with Boyle. In short, Starkey, born in the American colonies, was one of the "giants" on whose shoulders both Newton and Boyle stood. George Starkey (1627-65) was born in Bermuda, at the time part of the "American Colonies," and was educated at Harvard between 1643-6. He learned alchemy there under the instruction of John Winthrop the Younger. In 1650, he moved to London where he joined Hartlib's "Invisible College," an informal gathering in which those who expressed interest in scientific matters could exchange ideas. He performed extensive experiments for Robert Boyle. One of Dr. Newman's hypotheses which he will set out to prove in this research is that Starkey was actually the pseudonymous writer "Eirenaeus Philalethes" whose alchemical works flooded Europe in the late 17th century. Isaac Newton was an avid collector of Philalethan manuscripts and it now appears that his corpuscular "nutshell theory of matter" may owe more to Starkey than to any other author. Starkey's historical importance was that he was the first American scientist of great repute in Europe, and Starkey's works played a major role in the approximately one million words that Isaac Newton devoted to alchemy. Dr. Newman, under this grant will examine the major events of Starkey's life, his relationship to Boyle and influence on Newton, and the scope of his ideas -- especially their relevance to the natural philosophy and chemistry of his time. This research will entail close examination of manuscripts available only in British libraries and will lead to the first full-scale treatment of this seminal figure in the history of American science and the Scientific Revolution.