Doctoral Dissertation Research: Roger Bacon's Pharmacology and the Prolongation of Life

中世纪的医学史经常被描述为不同寻常，被认为与现代医学相去甚远。但这忽略了两个值得进一步研究的重要领域：许多21世纪医疗实践的中世纪根源，以及对药物安全性和有效性的持续担忧。替代医学团体对推广顺势疗法、精油和“全天然”疗法的恐惧，可以追溯到中世纪。这个项目的目标是研究中世纪与方济各会罗杰·培根(1292)的医学炼金术实践有关的药理学实践，通过他试图生产出延长人类生命的药物。培根的医学炼金术体现了13世纪对医学实践的态度，它同时服从于古典权威，倡导实验和创造新知识。根据当代13世纪的医学权威，这个项目通过研究培根现存的手稿，考察了培根如何相信炼金术理论提供了创造更有效的药物的方法。炼金术教授了有机和无机物质是如何产生的。这部药理学的历史对医学历史学家和当前的医疗实践都很重要：它澄清了对无机材料的早期使用及其在医学上的操作的理解。通过结合13世纪的医学教育和实践考察培根的炼金术和医学理论，本项目回答了三个核心问题：(1)培根认为哪些类型的药物对恢复健康有用？(2)这些药物对身体有什么生理影响，当其他药物无效时，为什么它们对疾病有效？以及(3)我们如何描述培根的医学理论与大学教授的医学理论之间的关系？通过将培根置于13世纪专注于创造万能药(如Theriac)的医学传统中，这项研究表明，培根虽然在他的许多思想中肯定是独一无二的，但仍然是13世纪知识文化的一部分，他的思想是由医学进步和当代神学论述塑造的。当务之急是确立培根思想的原创性，因为之前的学者曾提出，在1144年将培根引入西方后的头150年左右，炼金术更多地关注金属的转化，而不是制造药物。因此，培根通常被认为是第一位将炼金术和医学结合起来的西方作家。如果可以证明培根的炼金术思想受到了其他人的影响，那么西方炼金术的早期历史，特别是它与医疗实践的联系，将需要重新审视。这一奖项反映了NSF的法定使命，并通过使用基金会的智力价值和更广泛的影响审查标准进行评估，被认为值得支持。

The history of medicine in the Middle Ages is often characterized as unusual, and considered far removed from modern medicine. But this ignores two important areas deserving further study: the medieval roots of many twenty-first century medical practices, and continuing concerns about the safety and efficacy of drugs. The fears of alternative medicine groups promoting homeopathy, essential oils, and “all-natural” remedies can be found as far back as the Middle Ages. The goal of this project is to study the practice of pharmacology in the Middle Ages in relation to the Franciscan Roger Bacon’s (d.1292) practice of medical alchemy, through which he attempted to produce medicines that would prolong human life. Bacon’s medical alchemy exemplifies thirteenth century attitudes towards medical practice, which simultaneously deferred to classical authorities and advocated for experiment and the creation of new knowledge. By examining extant manuscripts written by Bacon in light of contemporary 13th century medical authorities, this project examines the ways in which Bacon believes the theories of alchemy - which teaches how both organic and inorganic substances are generated - provides the means to create more effective pharmaceuticals. This history of pharmacology is important both for historians of medicine and current medical practice: it clarifies understanding of the early use of inorganic materials and their manipulation in medicine. By examining Bacon’s alchemical and medical theories in light of thirteenth century medical education and practice, this project answers three central questions: (1) What types of medicines does Bacon think are useful in restoring health? (2) What physiological effects do these medicines have on the body, and why are they effective against disease when other medicines fail? And (3) How can we characterize the relationship between Bacon’s medical theories and those taught in universities? In situating Bacon within the 13th century medical traditions that focused on creating panaceas such as theriac, this research shows that Bacon, while certainly unique in many of his ideas, is still a part of the thirteenth century intellectual culture and that his ideas are molded by advances in medicine and contemporary theological discourses. It is imperative that the originality of Bacon’s ideas be established, as previous scholars have suggested that for the first 150 or so years after its introduction to the west in 1144, alchemy was focused more on the transmutation of metals than the making medicines. Thus Bacon is generally considered the first western author to unite alchemy and medicine. If it could be shown that Bacon’s alchemical ideas were influenced by others, then the early history of western alchemy, especially its ties with medical practice, would need to be re-examined.This award reflects NSF's statutory mission and has been deemed worthy of support through evaluation using the Foundation's intellectual merit and broader impacts review criteria.