Collaborative Research: Gender Differences in Competitive Attitudes

在高知名度的工作和某些领域的代表性方面，性别差异很大。对这种职业差异的标准经济解释包括对工作时间和责任的偏好差异、能力差异以及歧视。在之前的一项研究中，研究人员表明，如果没有这些因素，职业差异很可能占上风。原因是，即使在公平的竞争环境中，男性和女性对竞争环境的偏好也不同。研究发现，男性选择竞争性薪酬的可能性是女性的两倍，在控制绩效、信心和风险厌恶程度时，男性在选择非竞争性薪酬方面仍然存在性别差异。虽然女性回避竞争，但男性竞争太多了。这种性别差异不仅减少了参加锦标赛的女性人数，也减少了赢得锦标赛的女性人数。因此，它降低了女性在晋升和更有利可图的工作竞争中获胜的机会。在证明竞争态度的显著性别差异揭示了可能导致男性和女性之间职业差异的原因的同时，它也提出了一系列新的问题。特别是，如果不能更好地了解可能造成或影响这种差异的原因，就根本不清楚可以做些什么来提高高生产率妇女在最高管理职位上的代表性。在这项研究中，使用了两种不同的方法来更好地理解是什么影响了男性和女性的薪酬选择。第一种方法考察了可能导致竞争态度不同的原因。具体地说，这项研究考察了这种差异是如何从儿童时期发展到青春期的，以及这种差异是否取决于个人所在国家的男女平等。第二种方法调查是否有机构不仅让男性和女性做出更相似的薪酬选择，而且还让他们选择为他们提供更大的金钱回报。在之前的一项研究中，研究人员发现，参加锦标赛的高生产率女性太少，低生产率男性太多；目前的研究试图探讨，改变制度是否能鼓励这些人做出回报更高的薪酬选择。首先，审查了平权行动的潜在影响。然后，除了研究“共同的”平权行动规则外，这项研究还评估了这种制度的极端--单一性别锦标赛。此外，这项研究还确定了向参与者提供更好反馈的机构是否可以改善他们的决策。最后，这项研究评估了当个人与其他群体竞争时，竞争态度是否不同，而不是作为个人。由于女性经常被发现比男性更合作，这可能是因为她们在一群人中更愿意竞争。更广泛的影响：虽然已经做了很多工作来解释职业性别差异，但这项研究的创新之处在于使用对照实验来证明竞争态度的差异可能会发挥作用。了解是什么影响了个人的竞争意愿，预计将导致进一步了解可以采取哪些措施来提高高生产率女性在最高职位上的代表性。这种实用的见解对整个社会具有广泛的影响。

Gender differences in the representation among high profile jobs as well as in certain fields are substantial. Standard economic explanations for such occupational differences include differences in preferences for work hours and responsibilities, differences in ability, as well as discrimination. In a previous study the researchers showed that occupational differences are likely to prevail absent these factors. The reason is that even on a leveled playing field, men and women differ in their preference for competitive environments. Men are found to be twice as likely as women to select a competitive over a non-competitive compensation, and a gender gap in choices remains when controlling for performance, confidence and risk aversion. While women shy away from competition men compete too much. Such gender differences not only reduce the number of women who enter tournaments, but also those who win tournaments. Hence it decreases the chance of women succeeding in competition for promotions and more lucrative jobs.While demonstrating substantial gender differences in competitive attitudes sheds light on what may cause occupational differences between men and women, it also raises a series of new questions. In particular, absent a better understanding of what may cause or affect such differences, it is by no means clear what can be done to improve the representation of high-productivity women in top-managerial positions. In this study two different approaches are used to better understand what affects the compensation choices of men and women. The first approach examines what may cause differences in competitive attitudes. Specifically, the study examines how such differences develop from childhood through adolescence, and whether the differences depend on the equality between men and women in the country where the individual lives. The second approach investigates if there are institutions that not only cause men and women to make more similar compensation choices, but also choices that provide them with a larger monetary payoff. In a prior study, researchers found that too few high-productivity women and too many low productivity men entered the tournament; the current study attempts to whether changing the institutions can encourages these individuals to make payoff-superior compensation choices. Initially, the potential effects of affirmative action are examined. Then, in addition to studying "common" affirmative action rules, the study assesses what may be viewed as an extreme of such a system--single-sex tournaments. Furthermore, the study also determines whether institutions that provide better feedback to participants may improve their decisions. Finally, the study assesses whether competitive attitudes differ when individuals compete in groups against other groups, rather than as individuals. Since women frequently are found to be more cooperative than men, it may be that they are more willing to compete when doing so in a group of people.Broader Impacts: While much work has been done to explain the occupational gender differences, the innovation in this study is the use of controlled experiments to demonstrate that a role may be played by differences in competitive attitudes. Understanding what affects an individual's willingness to compete is expected to lead to further understanding of what may be done to improve the representation of high-productivity women in top positions. Such practical insights have broad implications for society as a whole.