Evolution of the pectoral girdle and forelimbs of frogs and toads: from ontogeny to biomechanical mechanisms

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Despite the otherwise comparably conserved morphology of frogs and toads (Lissamphibia: Anura), a large diversity of locomotor behaviors has evolved within this clade. It is well-known that most parts of the post-cranial skeleton are adapted to specific locomotor behaviors. Yet, adaptations in muscle configurations and the underlying biomechanics in the musculoskeletal system remain poorly understood. The forelimbs and pectoral girdle, although of high importance for locomotion, have gained little attention compared to the pelvic girdle and hindlimbs. We therefore intend to analyze the biomechanical principles underlying the realization of different forelimb and pectoral girdle configurations in relation to locomotor behaviors with the ultimate goal of inferring and explaining the evolution of the musculoskeletal system of the forelimbs and the pectoral girdle. Given inconsistencies in the identification and naming of muscle units, we will first study muscle ontogeny to suggest well-supported muscle homologies across the entire anuran phylogeny and between the Anura and Caudata. Functional analyses will be performed using multibody dynamics simulations and finite element analyses.