Judge's initiative in dispute resolution---Hidden basement of modern civil procedure

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In former studies civil procedure from medieval/ early modern learned law to modern German and Japanese law was basically party-controled. On the contrary this research has made clear that in theoretical works, and in practice too, officium iudicis played a rather active role. Intervention of judges were highly expected also from parties and their lawyers as strategic measure. We can say that the initiative of judge has been one tradition for european civil procedure.