Exploration of non-standard applications of dense GPS arrays

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New applications, other than crustal deformation, have been explored using dense arrays of GNSS receivers. Long-term changes of precipitable water vapor over Japan has been measured with GNSS, and several climate change episodes have been detected. GNSS can observe ionospheric total electron content by comparing two carrier phases. We not only detected the missile trajectories by ionospheric electron depletion due to rocket exhaust, we drew 2-D maps of Es irregularities, and found new phenomena such as preseismic electron enhancements.