Cellular and Developmental Biology of Coxiella burnetii

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Central to Q fever pathogenesis is replication of the causative agent, Coxiella burnetii, in a large and spacious phagolysosome-like Coxiella-containing vacuole (CCV). Similar to a phagolysosome, the CCV has an acidic pH and contains lysosomal hydrolases obtained via fusion with late endocytic vesicles. Lysosomal hydrolases break down various lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins; thus, it is assumed Coxiella derives nutrients for growth from these degradation products. To investigate this possibility, we utilized a GNPTAB-/- HeLa cell line that lacks lysosomal hydrolases in endocytic compartments. Unexpectedly, examination of Coxiella growth in GNPTAB-/- HeLa cells revealed replication and viability are not impaired, indicating Coxiella does not require by products of hydrolase degradation to survive and grow in the CCV. However, although bacterial growth was normal, CCVs were abnormal, appearing dark and condensed rather than clear and spacious. Lack of degradation within CCVs allowed waste products to accumulate, including intraluminal vesicles, autophagy protein-LC3, and cholesterol. The build-up of waste products coincided with an altered CCV membrane, where LAMP1 was decreased, and CD63 and LAMP1 redistributed from a punctate to uniform localization. This disruption of CCV membrane organization may account for the decreased CCV size due to impaired fusion with late endocytic vesicles. Collectively, these results demonstrate lysosomal hydrolases are not required for Coxiella survival and growth but are needed for normal CCV development. These data provide insight into mechanisms of CCV biogenesis while raising the important question of how Coxiella obtains essential nutrients from its host. Recruitment of membrane during CCV biogenesis is a complex process modulated by both host and bacterial factors. Coxiella encodes a specialized Dot/Icm type IVB secretion system (T4BSS) that secretes proteins with effector functions directly into the host cell cytosol. Effector proteins are predicted to modulate an array of host cell processes, such as vesicular trafficking, that promote pathogen growth. By using new gene inactivation technologies developed in our laboratory, we have confirmed that a functional T4BSS is required for productive infection of human macrophages by Coxiella. Furthermore, we have verified Dot/Icm-dependent secretion of 40 proteins (among the roughly 120 identified) that are intact in all Coxiella strains. These are likely core effectors needed for successful infection, regardless of strain virulence potential. A critical cohort of effectors is predicted to co-opt vesicular trafficking pathways to promote CCV development. We are currently elucidating the activities of five effector proteins that traffic to the CCV membrane termed CvpA (Coxiella vacuolar protein A), CvpB, CvpC, CvpD, and CvpE that may modulate membrane fusion events. Mutants in individual cvp genes all display significant defects in replication and PV development. Particular insight into the function of CvpA has been gained by showing the protein subverts clathrin-coated vesicle trafficking. Regulation of the Coxiella T4BSS is poorly defined. IcmS is a predicted cytoplasmic adapter protein that facilitates translocation of certain T4BSS effectors by binding an internal signal sequence(s). We examined the function of Coxiella IcmS by generating an icmS deletion mutant. The Coxiella icmS mutant grows normally in axenic media while having a pronounced growth defect in host cells that is rescued with a single chromosomal copy of icmS. Optimal secretion of individual substrates is either IcmS-dependent or independent. Additionally, a subset of substrates displays hyper-secretion by the Coxiella icmS mutant, suggesting IcmS may also suppress secretion of some Dot/Icm substrates. Thus, regulation by IcmS appears complex, with the growth defect of the Coxiella icmS mutant potentially explained by both deficient and aberrant secretion of effector proteins. Coxiella undergoes a biphasic developmental cycle that generates biologically, ultrastructurally, and compositionally distinct large cell variant (LCV) and small cell variant (SCV) forms. LCV are replicating, exponential phase forms while SCVs are non-replicating, stationary phase forms. The SCV has several properties, such as a condensed nucleoid and an unusual cell envelope, suspected of conferring enhanced environmental stability. Although the developmental cycle is considered fundamental to Coxiella virulence, the molecular biology of this process is poorly understood. Ultrastructural studies show marked differences in the cell envelope between cell variants, but little is known about biochemical differences between SCV and LCV that confer their distinct biological and physical properties. Using an innovative and sensitive shotgun proteomics approach, we found that SCVs employ a new mechanism of outer membrane (OM) stabilization involving covalent linkage of peptidoglycan (PG ) to OM porins. PG muropeptides are linked to the N-terminal glycine residue of Coxiella OmpA-like porins CBU0307 and CBU0311. Deletion of Coxiella ldt2, encoding L,D transpeptidase 2, abolishes glycine linkages. Striking phenotypes of the deltaldt2 mutant are pronounced membrane blebbing and production of outer membrane vesicles. This hitherto unrecognized mechanism of PG-OM anchoring dramatically expands our understanding of OM stabilization and the function of L,D transpeptidases. These findings also have important implications for understanding how OM permeability is controlled to allow entry of small molecules, such as antibiotics. Moreover, it invokes a new model of OM stabilization in bacteria lacking PG-linked Brauns lipoprotein. As part of NIAID/RMLs response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the CPS assisted with ABSL-3 SARS-CoV-2 hamster studies led by Dr. Andrea Marzi (LV) to evaluate the preventative and therapeutic efficacy of several SARS-CoV-2 therapeutics and vaccines, including TLR4 agonists and VSV based vaccines. These agents were evaluated in a hamster model of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Assistance was provided in study preparation, animal infections, monitoring, and necropsies.