Norwegian Nurses in the Service of the Third Reich: A Criminological Study of Atrocity Perpetration and Claims to Victimhood

我的项目是犯罪者研究和暴行犯罪学(Aydin-Aitchison等人，2022年)。利用档案资料，对有限的德国红十字会挪威护士研究(1942-1945)进行了拓展和深化。我会将这一群体与第三帝国(1939-1945)更知名的安乐死护士进行比较，例如，参见本尼迪克特和希尔兹，2014：布莱恩特，2005：科普兰，2020)。这两个群体在第二次世界大战后都受到了起诉，尽管他们声称自己是受害者，但在历史研究中仍然处于边缘地位，完全不属于暴行犯罪学。研究这两组女护士将使我们能够更好地理解女性在暴行时期参与犯罪，而且通过以红十字组织为框架，解释一个致力于人道主义活动的组织是如何为反人道主义政权服务的。此外，我将使用克里斯蒂(1986)的“理想受害者”概念来探索战后记忆和受害者身份的主张，询问这些护士是如何在犯罪者和受害者类别之间转换的。作为回应，本项目将利用档案材料，应用犯罪学理论和概念来解决护士参与的难题。主要的研究问题是：如何解释挪威护士作为德国红十字会的一部分对纳粹暴行罪行的贡献？最近的研究已经摒弃了普通/非常的二分法，认识到暴行犯罪的肇事者表现出不同的驱动因素，应该被理解为在特殊情况下的普通人(Anderson，2017：Mann，2004：Jensen and Szejnmann，2008：Smeulers and Grunfeld 2011：Smeulers，2015)。在这一领域，直到20世纪80年代末和90年代初，妇女才被研究为肇事者(Zroka，2015：Low，2014：Jensen和Szejnmann，2008)。从那时起，妇女作为纳粹政策促进者的重要性已经得到了令人信服的证明(Low，2011)，但妇女在护理中的作用仍然没有得到充分的研究和理论性。大多数关于护士在大屠杀中的角色的工作都涉及到德国妇女和德国红十字会(Der Veer，2019：本尼迪克特与盾牌，2014)。人们对德国红十字会中的挪威护士也知之甚少。没有什么东西是用英语写的，而挪威文学也缺乏理论性。我们所知道的是，大约有447名挪威妇女自愿为纳粹化的德国红十字会服务；到战争结束时，大约有300名护士在东线服务；只有10%的人接受过全面的护士教育。战后，450名护士因叛国罪被起诉和判刑(S，2016：Gogstad，2008：Bay，2014：2017)。随后，2015年，挪威红十字会公开向被定罪的护士道歉，原因是他们未能支持她们，尽管有证据表明她们参与了纳粹的目的。其中许多是已知纳粹家庭的成员(戈格斯塔德，2008年)；447名护士中有229名拥有活跃的NS会员资格(S，2016年)：一部纪录片采访的一名口头消息来源称，她知道有挪威护士驻扎在达豪集中营(贝，2014：2017：SJU Kammers，2011)。为了扩大和加强现有研究的有限范围，有必要使用最近才公开的档案。这在理论上意义重大，因为与德国护士已经在经历了戏剧性的重新定位的机构注册不同，挪威护士是自愿的。根据克里斯蒂的软弱、体面、无可指摘和相关的特征，更多的代理和故意程度对于审查护士随后声称的受害者是重要的。

My project is located in perpetrator studies and atrocity criminology (Aydin-Aitchison et al, 2022). Using archival sources, it expands and deepens the limited research on the Norwegian nurses in the German Red Cross (1942-1945). I will compare this group with the better-known Euthanasia Nurses of the Third Reich (1939-1945, see e.g., Benedict and Shields,2014: Bryant,2005: Copeland,2020). Both groups were prosecuted after the Second World War, despite claiming the status of victimhood, but remain marginal in historical research and completely absent from criminology of atrocity. Studying these two groups of female nurses will enable us to better understand female participation of perpetration during times of atrocity, but also, by using the organisation of the Red Cross as a frame, explain how an organisation dedicated to humanitarian activity came to serve anti-humanitarian regime. Further, I will use Christie's (1986) concept of 'ideal victim' to explore post-war memory and claims to victimhood, interrogating how these nurses shift between categories of perpetrator and victim. In response, this project will use archival material and apply criminological theories and concepts to resolve the puzzle about the nurses' participation. The main research question is: What explains Norwegian nurses' contribution to Nazi atrocity crime in their role as part of the German Red Cross? More recent studies have abandoned the ordinary/extraordinary dichotomy, and recognised that perpetrators of atrocity crimes display various drivers and should be understood as ordinary individuals within extraordinary circumstances (Anderson,2017: Mann,2004: Jensen and Szejnmann,2008: Smeulers and Grunfeld 2011: Smeulers,2015). Within this field, women were rarely studied as perpetrators until the late 1980s and early 1990s (Zroka,2015: Lower,2014: Jensen and Szejnmann,2008). Since then, the importance of women as facilitators of Nazi policy have been demonstrated convincingly (Lower, 2011), but the role of women in nursing remains understudied and under-theorised. Most work concerning nurses' role in the Holocaust deals with German women and the German Red Cross (Der Veer, 2019: Benedict and Shields,2014). Little is also known about Norwegian nurses in the German Red Cross. Nothing is written in English, while Norwegian literature is under-theorised. What we do know is that around 447 Norwegian women volunteered to serve the Nazified German Red Cross; by the end of the war around 300 nurses had served at the Eastern Front; only 10% were fully educated as nurses. After the war, 450 nurses were prosecuted and sentenced for treason (Sæther, 2016: Gogstad,2008: Bay, 2014:2017). Subsequently, in 2015 the Norwegian Red Cross publicly apologised to the convicted nurses for failing to support them, in spite of evidence of their complicity with Nazi aims. Many were members of known Nazi families (Gogstad,2008); 229 of the 447 nurses had active NS memberships (Sæther,2016): and one oral source interviewed for a documentary stated that she knew of Norwegian nurses stationed at Dachau concentration camp (Bay,2014: 2017:Sju Kammers, 2011). To expand on and enhance the limited scope of existing research there is a need to use archives that have only recently become publicly available. This is theoretically significant, because, unlike German nurses already enrolled in an institution that underwent a dramatic reorientation, Norwegian nurses volunteered. The additional degree of agency and intentionality is important to examine nurses' subsequent claims of victimhood in terms of Christie's features of weakness, respectability, blamelessness and relatedness.