Lysosome biogenesis and homeostasis

细胞生物学中最基本的问题之一是细胞如何整合生长刺激和抑制信号，最终调节多种关键细胞功能，包括基因表达、自噬、细胞器生物发生和细胞生长。mTOR是一种丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶，根据能量水平、生长因子和营养物质调节增殖、细胞周期和自噬。mTOR响应多种应激，其失调导致癌症、代谢疾病和糖尿病。在细胞中，mTOR作为两种结构和功能不同的复合物存在，称为mTOR复合物1 （mTORC1）和mTOR复合物2 （mTORC2）。mTORC1通过平衡合成代谢（蛋白质合成和营养储存）和分解代谢过程（自噬和能量储存的利用），将能量和营养丰富度与细胞生长和增殖结合起来。活性mTORC1定位于晚期内体/溶酶体，这种分布被认为对mTORC1感知和响应氨基酸水平变化的能力至关重要。mTORC1被认为是一种转录无关的自噬调节因子。在营养丰富的条件下，mTORC1具有活性，可直接磷酸化并抑制参与自噬诱导的Atg蛋白，如Atg13和Atg1 （ULK1/2）。在饥饿条件下，当mTORC1失活时，mTORC1与ULK复合物分离，从而导致自噬诱导。

One of the most fundamental issues in cell biology is how cells integrate growth-stimulating and inhibitory signals to ultimately regulate a diversity of key cellular functions, including gene expression, autophagy, organelle biogenesis, and cell growth. mTOR is a serine/threonine kinase that regulates proliferation, cell cycle, and autophagy in response to energy levels, growth factors, and nutrients. mTOR responds to numerous stresses and its dysregulation leads to cancer, metabolic disease, and diabetes. In cells, mTOR exists as two structurally and functionally distinct complexes termed mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) and mTOR complex 2 (mTORC2). mTORC1 couples energy and nutrient abundance to cell growth and proliferation by balancing anabolic (protein synthesis and nutrient storage) and catabolic processes (autophagy and the utilization of energy stores). Active mTORC1 localizes to late endosomes/lysosomes and this distribution is thought to be critical for the ability of mTORC1 to sense and respond to variations in the levels of amino acids. mTORC1 is considered a transcription-independent regulator of autophagy. Under rich-nutrient conditions, mTORC1 is active and directly phosphorylates and inhibits Atg proteins involved in autophagy induction such as Atg13 and Atg1 (ULK1/2). Under starvation conditions when mTORC1 is inactivated, mTORC1 dissociates from the ULK complex, thus leading to autophagy induction. The transcription factor EB (TFEB) is a member of the basic helix-loop-helix leucine-zipper family of transcription factors that controls lysosomal biogenesis and autophagy by positively regulating genes belonging to the Coordinated Lysosomal Expression and Regulation (CLEAR) network. Importantly, we have found that mTORC1 controls the activity and cellular localization of TFEB. Under nutrient-rich conditions, mTORC1 phophorylates TFEB in S211, thus promoting binding of TFEB to the cytosolic chaperone 14-3-3 and retention of TFEB in the cytosol. Upon amino acids deprivation, dissociation of the TFEB/14-3-3 complex results in delivery of TFEB to the nucleus and up-regulation of genes that leads to induction of autophagy, biogenesis of lysosomes, and increased lysosomal degradation. We also found that TFEB is recruited to lysosomes through direct interaction with active Rag GTPases. This Rag-mediated redistribution of TFEB to the lysosomal surface facilitates the phosphorylation of TFEB by mTORC1 and constitutes an efficient way to link nutrient availability to TFEB inactivation. Inhibition of the interaction between TFEB and Rags results in accumulation of TFEB in the nucleus and constitutive activation of autophagy under nutrient rich conditions, thus indicating that recruitment of TFEB to lysosomes is critical for the proper control of this transcription factor. More recently we identified the transcription factor E3 (TFE3) as novel regulator of lysosomal formation and function. Similar to TFEB, the recruitment of TFE3 to lysosomes is mediated by active Rag GTPases and this step is critical for mTORC1-mediated phosphorylation of TFE3 and retention in the cytosol. Over-expression of TFE3 results in increased autophagy and enhanced lysosomal biogenesis, as evidenced by an increase in the number of lysosomes and lysosomal activity. In contrast, depletion of endogenous TFE3 entirely abolishes the cellular response to starvation, thus confirming the crucial role of TFE3 in nutrient sensing and energy metabolism. We also described that TFE3 is a novel and very promising therapeutic target for the treatment of Lysosomal Storage Disorders by showing that overexpressed TFE3 increases the abundance of the lysosomal calcium channel MCOLN1, triggers lysosomal exocytosis, and promotes efficient cellular clearance in cellular model of Pompe disease. Given the high level of expression of endogenous TFE3 in critical tissues, such as brain and muscle, the ability of TFE3 to induce cellular clearance is of potential clinical relevance. Finally, our work revealed that Rag GTPases function as docking sites for the recruitment of different sets of effectors to the lysosomal surface depending on their activation state. By using proteomic approaches we have successfully identified folliculin, as a novel regulator of the mTORC1 pathway. We are currently validating additional novel candidates that are selectively recruited to lysosomes by either active or inactive Rag GTPases.