Phenotypic and Biomechanical Effects of Altered Cell Proliferation and Differentiation in the Mouse Skull

长期以来，研究人员一直对哺乳动物头骨进化的关键过程感兴趣。 在这里，我们提出了一种独特的方法，融合进化发育生物学与功能形态学，以增加我们对哺乳动物头骨进化过程的理解。 具体来说，我们的首要目标是确定颅骨内的细胞增殖和分化（P&D）如何影响颅骨形状和形状变化，以及这些形态变化如何影响颅骨功能（通过应变分布测量）。 ** 我们的方法涉及三种小鼠模型，其中增殖和分化在整体上发生了变化，仅在软骨细胞和成骨细胞中。 这些小鼠模型使我们能够系统地量化和比较改变P&D的细胞类型特异性表型和生物力学效应。 我们通过三个目标来实现我们的总体目标。*目的1：量化整个颅骨的P&D，并在小鼠模型和整个发育过程中比较这些结果。目标1的结果将提供第一个全面的研究模式的P&D的成骨细胞和软骨细胞在整个地区的头骨和整个发展。 我们的研究结果将提供关于P&D在正常小鼠颅骨发育过程中的作用的基本信息，它们还将为目标2和3的结果提供细胞机制。目的2：确定P&D改变对颅骨形态和表型变异的影响，并确定这些影响是否具有细胞类型特异性。这个目标将提供深入了解P&D如何通过其对头骨形状和形状变化的影响来影响头骨进化。 我们将能够确定P&D的表型效应是扩散的还是局限于特定区域。 本目标的结果将与目标1和3的结果相结合，作为将表型变异与发育和功能相结合的一种手段。目的3：确定P&D改变对颅骨生物力学特性的影响，并确定这些影响是否具有细胞类型特异性。我们将开发第一个小鼠颅骨FEM和第一套FEM来跟踪颅骨发育。 这些模型将使我们能够比较近似的生物力学特性，如小鼠模型和年龄组之间的应力和应变。 我们将能够看到头骨形状的特定变化如何改变生物力学功能，将决定头骨进化潜力的变化特性与功能性能的测量联系起来。 ** 拟议工作的深远影响源于细胞、形态和功能水平分析的整合。这种整合提供了一种新的和强大的方法来研究如何通用的过程，如P&D可以影响头骨的进化潜力，通过他们的影响在整个发展过程中的形式和功能。

The search for key processes that underlie the evolution of the mammalian skull has long fascinated researchers. Here, we propose a unique approach that blends evolutionary developmental biology with functional morphology to add to our growing understanding of the processes underlying mammalian skull evolution. Specifically, our overarching goal is to determine how cellular proliferation and differentiation (P&D) within the skull affects skull shape and shape variation and how these changes in morphology impact skull function as measured by strain distribution. ****** Our approach involves three mouse models in which proliferation and differentiation are altered globally, in chondrocytes only and in osteoblasts only. These mouse models allow us to systematically quantify and compare the cell-type specific phenotypic and biomechanical effects of altered P&D. We address our overarching goal through three Aims.******Aim 1: To quantify P&D throughout the skull and compare these results among mouse models and throughout development. Results from Aim 1 will provide the first comprehensive look at the patterns of P&D of osteoblasts and chondrocytes throughout all regions of the skull and throughout development. Our findings will provide fundamental information on the role of P&D during normal mouse skull development and they will also inform the cellular mechanism for results of Aims 2 and 3.******Aim 2: To determine the effects of altered P&D on skull morphology and phenotypic variation and to determine if these effects are cell-type specific. This Aim will provide insight into how P&D might impact skull evolution through their effects on skull shape and shape variation. We will be able to determine if the phenotypic effects of P&D are diffuse or are localized to specific regions. Results of this Aim will be combined with those of Aims 1 and 3 as a means to integrate phenotypic variation with development and function.******Aim 3: To determine the effects of altered P&D on the biomechanical properties of the skull and to determine if these effects are cell-type specific. We will develop the first mouse skull FEM and first set of FEMs to track skull development. These models will allow us to compare approximated biomechanical properties such as stress and strain among mouse models and age groups. We will be able to see how specific variations in skull shape alter biomechanical function, linking variational properties that determine the evolutionary potential of the skull with measures of functional performance. ****** The profound impact of the proposed work stems from the integration of analyses at the cellular, morphological and functional levels. Such integration provides a novel and powerful approach to the study of how generic processes such as P&D could influence the evolutionary potential of the skull through their impact on form and function throughout development.