Doctoral Dissertation Improvement: Self-Medication as an Anti-Parasitic Adaptation in Japanese Macaques

非人类自我药疗的研究是一个新兴的领域，对灵长类动物的行为和认知，人类文化和生物进化以及濒危物种的保护都有影响。非人灵长类动物表现出先天和学习的行为，包括摄入抗寄生虫植物，摄入具有杀虫活性的粘土，以及外用杀虫植物。由于类人猿的某些自我治疗行为与人类的传统医学有着显著的相似性，因此，根据文化“神话”故事，从动物的观察中获得某些人类医学的可能性提高了。本研究将调查日本雅库猕猴（Macaca fuscata yakui）和日本传统的Kanpo药剂师使用特定植物和矿物作为抗寄生虫药物的情况。屋久猕猴是日本猕猴的一个濒危亚种，在屋久岛（日本南部）特有。猕猴习惯于研究人员，但在其他方面是野生的，只有最少的人为干预。寄生虫学调查显示，96%的人口感染了多达三种肠道寄生虫。对这些猴子一整年的观察和粪便分析将揭示药用植物和矿物质的摄入是否与肠道寄生虫感染的严重时期相对应，以及这些材料是否能有效减轻感染和它们产生的衰弱症状。受到特别审查的是东亚医学已知的五种植物，以及与西方抗腹泻药物（例如Kaopectate）中使用的类似的高岭土。每天将对一只猕猴进行观察性数据收集，记录候选药材的饮食摄入量和摄入持续时间。每天两次从地面采集粪便样本，并分析寄生虫负荷和腹泻症状。统计分析将揭示猴子的健康状况、它们对药用资源的使用以及这种行为的功能结果之间的关系。人种学信息将通过与京都和屋久岛的专业Kanpo药剂师的访谈来收集。这些访谈将调查寄生虫感染、腹泻和腹痛的传统治疗方法，以及它们的制备和使用。人类和猕猴数据之间的相似或差异领域将允许进一步评估自我治疗的假设。除了学术兴趣，这项研究具有更广泛的应用。人类公共卫生实践可能会受益于发现具有医学意义的植物产品，评估传统医学实践的功效，以及澄清人类粘土摄入对健康的影响，这在许多文化中很常见，但通常被视为一种心理障碍。该研究还可能在濒危物种保护，特别是保护医学这一重要和发展中的领域中有应用。它将揭示疾病压力对濒危灵长类动物种群的生存具有重要意义，以及该种群为最大限度地减少这些威胁而采取的行为反应。它还将确定人类和非人类使用对保护性储备管理具有重要意义的药材之间的潜在冲突。它也可能有助于设计更有效的动物园围栏圈养繁殖计划，通过考虑的生化环境。

The study of non-human self-medication is an emerging field with implications for primate behavior and cognition, human cultural and biological evolution, and the conservation of endangered species. Non-human primates have displayed innate and learned behaviors including the ingestion of antiparasitic plants, the ingestion of pharmacologically active clays, and the external application of insecticidal plants. Some self-medicative behaviors by great apes have shown remarkable similarities to human traditional medicine, raising the possibility of acquisition of some human medicine from observation of animals, in accordance with cultural "mythological" stories.This research will investigate the use of specific plants and minerals as anti-parasitic medication by Yaku Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui), and by traditional Japanese Kanpo medicinal pharmacists. Yaku macaques are an endangered subspecies of Japanese macaque endemic to the island of Yakushima (southern Japan). The macaques are accustomed to researchers but are otherwise wild with minimal human intervention. Parasitological surveys have revealed 96% of the population to be infected with up to three species of intestinal parasite. Observation and fecal analysis of these monkeys over one full year will reveal whether the ingestion of medicinal plants and minerals corresponds to periods of heavy intestinal parasite infection, and also whether these materials are effective in alleviating the infection and the debilitating symptoms that they produce. Under particular scrutiny are five species of plant known to east Asian medicine, and Kaolinitic clays similar to that used in western anti-diarrheal medicines (e.g. Kaopectate). Observational data collection will be carried out focusing on one individual macaque per day, recording dietary intake and duration of ingestion of candidate medicinal materials. Fecal samples will be collected from the ground twice daily and be analyzed for parasite load and diarrheal symptoms. Statistical analysis will reveal the relationship between the health state of the monkeys, their use of the medicinal resources, and the functional outcome of this behavior.Ethnographic information will be collected through interviews with professional Kanpo pharmacists in Kyoto and on Yakushima. These interviews will investigate the traditional treatments for parasite infection, diarrhea and abdominal pain, their preparation and use. Areas of similarity or difference between the human and macaque data will allow further evaluation of self-medicative hypotheses.Alongside academic interest, this research has broader application. Human public health practices may benefit through the discovery of medicinally significant plant products, an evaluation of the efficacy of traditional medicinal practices, and the clarification of the health effects of human clay ingestion, common in many cultures but often regarded as a psychological disorder. The research may also have application in conservation of endangered species, especially the important and developing field of Conservation Medicine. It will reveal disease stresses significant to the survival of endangered primate populations, and the behavioral responses employed by that population to minimize these threats. It also will identify potential conflicts between human and non-human use of medicinal materials significant to protective-reserve management. It may also contribute to the design of more effective zoo enclosures for captive breeding programs through consideration of the biochemical environment.