Collaborative Research: Modeling and monitoring of landscape evolution along a climate gradient: Kohala Peninsula, Hawaii

气候，更具体地说，降雨是塑造景观的最重要因素之一，但量化降雨对景观发展的影响仍然是一个挑战。很容易看出干旱和潮湿地貌之间的差异，但事实证明，很难量化这两种环境之间的物理过程，如土壤发育、地表水和地下水流动以及山坡和河流侵蚀。位于夏威夷大岛北端的科哈拉半岛为解决这一问题提供了极好的实地环境。在整个约20公里宽的半岛上，降雨率从每年4000毫米以上到不到200毫米/年不等。在半岛潮湿的一侧，深深切割的沟壑占据了地形的主导地位，而在干燥的一侧，浅沟消失了，并在整个风景中重新出现。半岛潮湿的一侧发育了深厚的土壤，风化过程如此强烈，以至于指甲可以在许多岩石上刮出一个凹槽。相比之下，在干燥的一侧，地表土壤通常很浅，岩石多，裸露的岩石表面风化程度要小得多。该项目将利用实地监测和数值模拟，量化半岛对比面的水文和侵蚀过程的差异。两条集水区，一条在旱边，另一条在湿边，将会设有量度降雨量、山坡和水沟的水流深度、土壤水分和侵蚀率的仪器。这些设备将在整个项目期间持续运行。现场调查将提供对沟壑几何形状的详细观察，以及控制切割速度的变量，如沉积物颗粒大小、岩石硬度和破裂程度。这些数据将被纳入一个数字景观演变模型。该模式将被用来系统地探索关键气候控制和地表过程响应之间在地形演变的时间尺度上的反馈。现场数据将被用来约束模型中的物理过程，并激发特定的模拟场景。这个项目将解决一个基本的科学问题，即降雨模式如何实际影响风化和侵蚀过程。地球上几乎每个山脉都存在降雨梯度，这项研究的发现将在夏威夷群岛以外具有广泛的意义。气候、水文学和侵蚀之间的详细相互作用的知识可以应用于整个星球的景观。此外，通过量化景观发展和降雨之间的联系，可以更有效地预测潜在的气候变化对景观演变的影响。该项目将开发一些数字模型，供整个科学界免费使用，以便这项研究的结果可以很容易地应用于其他环境和广泛的科学问题。

Climate, and more specifically rainfall, is amongst the most important forces that shape a landscape, yet quantifying the impacts of rainfall on landscape development remains a challenge. It is easy to see the differences between the topography in arid versus humid landscapes, but it is has proven difficult to quantify how physical processes such as soil development, surface and subsurface water flow, and hillslope and fluvial erosion, differ between these two environments. The Kohala Peninsula, on the northern tip of the Big Island of Hawaii, offers an excellent field environment to address this question. Across the approximately 20 km wide peninsula, rainfall rates very from upwards of 4,000 mm/year to less than 200 mm/year. Deeply incised gulches dominate the topography of the wet side of the peninsula, while on the dry side, shallow gulches disappear and reappear across the landscape. The wet side of the peninsula has developed deep soils and the process of weathering is so intense that a fingernail can scrape a groove in many rocks. In contrast, on the dry side, surface soils are often shallow and rocky and exposed rock surfaces are much less weathered. This project will quantify the differences in hydrologic and erosion processes on the contrasting sides on the peninsula using both field monitoring and numerical modeling. Two watersheds, one on the dry side and one on the wet side, will be equipped with devices to measure rainfall rates, water flow depths on both the hillslopes and in the gulches, soil moisture content, and erosion rates. These devices will operate continually throughout the duration of the project. Field surveys will provide detailed observations of the geometry of the gulches and the variables that control incision rates, such as sediment grain size, rock hardness, and degree of fracturing. These data will be incorporated into a numerical landscape evolution model. The model will be used to systematically explore feedbacks between key climatic controls and surface process responses over the time scales at which landscapes evolve. Field data will be used to both constrain physical processes in the model and inspire the specific modeling scenarios.This project will address a fundamental scientific question of how rainfall patterns actually influence the processes of weathering and erosion. Rainfall gradients are present across almost every mountain range on Earth and the findings from this study will have broad significance beyond the Hawaiian Islands. Knowledge of the detailed interactions among climate, hydrology, and erosion can be applied to landscapes across the planet. Furthermore, by quantifying links between landscape development and rainfall, the effects of potential climate change on landscape evolution can be predicted more effectively. This project will develop a number of numerical models that will be freely available for use throughout the scientific community, so that the findings from this study can be easily applied in other settings and to a wide range of scientific questions.