Collaborative Research: Examining Formative Assessment Practices for English Language Learners in Science Classrooms

这是一项为期两年的探索性研究，旨在确定英语学习者（ELLs）有效的科学形成性评估（FA）实践的关键方面，以及影响此类实践的背景因素。三所大学为此目的共同努力：科罗拉多大学博尔德分校、科罗拉多大学丹佛分校和华盛顿大学。在本研究的背景下，FA被视为有助于ELLs科学学习的过程，而不是管理离散的仪器集来收集学生的数据。这项研究的对象是说西班牙语的小学生和中学生。本研究的结果有助于提高对语言多样性课堂中自然语言学习过程的认识和理解，并有助于确定研究议程，旨在提高科学教师为这一学生群体制定公平有效的评估实践的能力。三个研究问题指导了这项工作：(1)在主要为主流学生服务的科学教室和主要为ell学生服务的科学教室中，FA实践发生了什么？(2)教师对主流学生的FA实践与对ell学生的FA实践有何不同或相似之处？(3)语境因素和教师的文化和语言能力如何影响FA实践？为了解决这些问题，使用了两个概念框架——一个用于描述FA事件；另一个用于将FA事件作为通信过程进行检查。本研究采用案例研究为主的混合方法研究方法。样本大小包括科罗拉多州和华盛顿州的三个学区，16个教室（8个小学，8个中学），16名教师和96名ELLs。教室的选择是为了代表四个因素的特定组合：(a)教师种族，(b)教师在教授ELLs方面的正式学术准备，(c)语言学生背景类型，(d)年级水平。通过分层随机抽样选择学生，根据成绩水平（即低，中，高）和语言背景（即主流，ELL）进行识别。在科学单元的开始、期间和结束时记录FA实施的数据收集策略包括：(a)课堂观察协议，(b)课堂录像，(c)视频/人工模拟回忆，(d)评估人工，(e)学生访谈，(f)教师问卷调查，(g)教师访谈，(h)学校校长访谈，以及(i)学校观察。大多数数据收集工具的可靠性和有效性是通过试点研究确定的。数据解释策略包括：(a)基于两个概念框架的编码，(b)识别有效性水平的评分规则，以及(c)描述FA模式的叙述和概况。出版物和网站的开发是主要的传播策略。技术咨询委员会负责形成性和总结性评价。关键的评估问题是：(1)该项目通过案例研究在多大程度上加强了ELL FA实践的研究？(2)项目传播活动如何有效地促进对FA实践的理解？主要项目成果包括：(1)对ELLs的正式和非正式FA实践模式的描述；(2)在教师特征和语言多样性维度不同的课堂上观察到的FA实践的比较；(3)一套经验和理论的研究结果和策略，以支持教师制定和加强对文化和语言多样性敏感的FA实践。开发了三个主要产品：(1)用具体例子描述在不同教室观察到的FA实践的专著；(2)描述可能的专业发展策略，以改善语言多样性学生的在职FA实践；(3)基于研究的FA实践分析方法。除了用ELLs填补现有的FA研究空白外，结果和产品还为未来的研究议程和旨在确保包括ELLs在内的所有学生公平的科学学习的综合项目奠定了基础。

This is a two-year exploratory study to identify critical aspects of effective science formative assessment (FA) practices for English Language Learners (ELLs), and the contextual factors influencing such practices. Three institutions join efforts for this purpose: University of Colorado at Boulder, University of Colorado at Denver, and University of Washington. FA, in the context of the study, is viewed as a process contributing to the science learning of ELLs, as opposed to the administration of discrete sets of instruments to collect data from students. The study targets Spanish-speaking, elementary and middle school students. Findings from this study contribute to advance knowledge and understanding of FA as an inherent component of the science learning process in linguistically diverse classrooms, and to define a research agenda aimed at enhancing science teachers' ability to enact equitable and effective assessment practices for this student subpopulation. Three research questions guide the work: (1) What FA practices are occurring in science classrooms that serve predominantly mainstream students and in those serving predominantly ELLs?; (2) How are teachers' FA practices for mainstream students different from or similar to those used with ELLs?; and (3) How do contextual factors and teachers' cultural and linguistic competencies influence FA practices? To address these questions, two conceptual frameworks are used--one for characterizing FA events; the other for examining FA events as a communication process. The study employs a mixed-methods research approach with emphasis on case studies. The sample size consists of three school districts in Colorado and Washington, 16 classrooms (8 elementary, 8 middle school), 16 teachers, and 96 ELLs. Classrooms are selected to represent a particular combination of four factors: (a) teacher ethnicity, (b) teacher formal academic preparation in teaching ELLs, (c) type of linguistic student background, and (d) grade level. Students are selected through a stratified random sample, identified by achievement level (i.e., low, medium, high), and linguistic background (i.e., mainstream, ELL). Data collection strategies to document the implementation of FA at the beginning, during, and at the end of a science unit include: (a) classroom observation protocols, (b) classroom video-recording, (c) video/artifact simulated recall, (d) assessment artifacts, (e) student interviews, (f) teacher questionnaires, (g) teacher interviews, (h) school principal interviews, and (i) school observations. Reliability and validity of most of the data-gathering instruments is determined through pilot studies. Data interpretation strategies include: (a) coding based on the two conceptual frameworks, (b) scoring rubrics to identify levels of effectiveness, and (c) narratives and profiles to describe FA patterns. Publications and the development of a website constitute the main dissemination strategies. A technical advisory board is responsible for formative and summative evaluation. Key evaluation questions are: (1) To what extent does the project enhance research on ELL FA practices through case studies?, and (2) How effectively do the project dissemination activities facilitate understanding of FA practices? Major project outcomes include: (1) a description of the patterns of formal and informal FA practices for ELLs; (2) a comparison of the FA practices observed in classrooms that vary on the dimensions of teacher characteristics and linguistic diversity; and (3) an empirically and theoretically informed set of findings and strategies for supporting teachers to enact and enhance FA practices sensitive to cultural and linguistic diversity. Three main products are developed: (1) a monograph describing the FA practices observed across the different classrooms with concrete examples; (2) a description of possible professional development strategies to improve in-service FA practices for linguistically diverse students; and (3) a research-informed approach for analyzing FA practices. Besides filling the existing research gap on FA with ELLs, outcomes and products serve as a foundation for a future research agenda and a comprehensive project aimed at ensuring equitable science learning for all students, including ELLs.