An interdisciplinary exploration of the social impact of foetal and perinatal mortality during the industrialisation of England

最近对城市墓地的考古发掘推动了雄心勃勃的议程，以参与工业化的社会、文化和经济转型（Tarlow 2015; Nixon et al. 2002）。在编写关于健康、职业和家庭生活的包容性和代表性叙述时，妇女和儿童的生活受到了新的审视。这个项目解决了一个研究议程的关键目标——城市化如何影响家庭动态？（Powers 2015）——通过关注那些未能在工业时期的艰苦生活中幸存下来的婴儿，他们的死亡似乎在很大程度上是一件私事，被历史叙述和考古研究所忽视。工业时期婴儿埋葬的丧葬和骨学评估出现在商业考古发掘的许多报告中。这些证据直到最近才开始被纳入综合研究。已经对骨骼遗骸进行了延迟生长（Hodson 2018）和暴露于生物压力（Newman 2017）的评估，但需要构建更广泛的背景叙述-对胎儿和围产期死亡的社会和文化理解。通过关注用于调解损失和悲伤的死亡仪式，可以通过童年考古学（Crawford et al. 2018; Lilehammer 2015）的镜头来检查家庭，繁殖和情感历史中的一系列问题（Murphy 2011; Tarlow 2000）。本项目将评估工业化对胎儿和围产期死亡反应的影响，阐明城市化对18 -19世纪英国家庭的影响。1. 与成人相比，18 -19世纪的城市墓地是如何纪念胎儿和会阴的？它们在多大程度上出现在拱顶、坟墓、地窖和其他不同形式的埋葬中？在多大程度上，非常年轻的人被纳入/排除在埋葬社区之外？埋葬的空间分区或“秘密”将婴儿埋葬在成人坟墓中有多普遍？这些做法可能告诉我们对幼儿死亡的反应？社会地位和宗教信仰是否影响城市社区对胎儿和婴儿死亡的反应？4. 在多大程度上有证据表明对胎儿和围产期遗体进行非埋葬处理，例如遗弃或解剖，这对认识非常年轻的生命的价值有什么影响？该项目将利用最近发掘的大量材料整理一个集丧葬（埋葬形式、空间位置、棺材和其他形式的物理纪念）和骨学证据（死亡年龄、生理压力的病理证据和先天性疾病）为一体的数据集。材料将结合MOLA挖掘的证据（如Bow Baptist， St Marylebone, Paddington St North, Sheen's Burial Ground），谢菲尔德大学（St Hilda's, South Shields, Carver Street Methodist Chapel），现存报告（如St Martin's, Birmingham, Coach Lane, North Shields）以及来自新的和正在进行的挖掘的数据。研究方法将通过将埋葬数据与生命过程参数的详细证据（例如，对死亡年龄和健康状况的精确估计）进行交叉对照，以阐明这些儿童短暂生活的更广泛的环境，从而确定丧葬实践的模式及其向非常年轻的死者提供的服务。将这些考古数据与历史证据（死亡账单、新闻、法庭记录和助产文献）进行关键整合，利用对物质身体、丧葬仪式和情感的理论理解，促进对证据的深入、跨学科阅读，将阐明对婴儿死亡的反应的本质、这些反应背后的动机以及它们在工业化环境中与生死的更广泛关系。

Recent archaeological excavations of urban cemeteries have driven ambitious agendas to engage with the social, cultural and economic transitions of industrialisation (Tarlow 2015; Nixon et al. 2002). The lives of women and children have come under new scrutiny in the writing of inclusive and representative narratives of health, occupation and family life. This project addresses a key objective from one research agenda - How does urbanisation affect family dynamics? (Powers 2015) - by focusing on the many infants who did not survive the hardships of Industrial-period life and whose loss appears to have been largely a private affair, overlooked by both historical narratives and archaeological studies. Funerary and osteological assessments of burials of Industrial-period infants appear in numerous reports arising from commercial archaeological excavations. This evidence has only recently begun to be integrated into synthetic research. Skeletal remains have been evaluated for delayed growth (Hodson 2018), and exposure to biological stress (Newman 2017), but a wider contextual narrative needs to be constructed - a social and cultural understanding of foetal and perinatal death. By focusing on the death rituals used to mediate loss and grief, a range of issues in the histories of family, reproduction and emotion (Murphy 2011; Tarlow 2000) can be examined through the lens of archaeologies of childhood (Crawford et al. 2018; Lilehammer 2015).This project will evaluate the impact of industrialisation on responses to foetal and perinatal loss, illuminating the effect of urbanisation on the 18th-19th century English family. 1. How were foetuses and perinates commemorated in urban cemeteries dating to the 18th-19th centuries compared to adults? To what extent did they appear in vaults, tombs, crypts and other different forms of burial?2. To what extent were the very young included/excluded from the burial community? How widespread were the spatial zoning of burials or 'clandestine' burials of infants in adult graves and what might these practices tell us about responses to death of young children?3. Did social status and religious affiliation affect the responses to foetal and infant loss in urban communities? 4. To what extent is there evidence for non-burial treatments of foetal and perinatal remains, for example abandonment or anatomisation, and what are the implications for perceptions of the value of very young lives? This project will capitalise on the wealth of recently-excavated materials to collate a dataset integrating funerary (burial form, spatial location, coffins and other forms of physical commemoration) and osteological evidence (age at death, pathological evidence of physiological stress, and congenital conditions). Materials will combine evidence from MOLA excavations (e.g. Bow Baptist, St Marylebone, Paddington St North, Sheen's Burial Ground) with collections at the University of Sheffield (St Hilda's, South Shields, Carver Street Methodist Chapel), extant reports (e.g. St Martin's, Birmingham; Coach Lane, North Shields) and data from new and ongoing excavations.Research methods will identify patterns in funerary practice and its provision to the very young dead, facilitated by cross reference of burial data with detailed evidence of life course parameters (e.g. precise estimations of age at death and health status) to illuminate the wider environment in which these children briefly lived. Critical integration of these archaeological data with historical evidence (Bills of Mortality, journalism, court records and midwifery literature) using theoretical understandings of the material body, funerary rites and emotions that facilitate a deep, interdisciplinary reading of the evidence will illuminate the nature of responses to infant loss, the motivations behind these responses and their wider relationships to life and death in an industrialising environment.