Carceral Communities: Serious Offenders, Secondary Stigmatisation, and Collateral Harms of Imprisonment

长期以来，对污名的连贯理论理解一直弥漫在学术想象中，因为不同的污名概念既有背景化的规范框架，也有问题化的规范框架。作为犯罪学评估的对象，污名化的后果意味着罪犯及其家人被边缘化的独特模式--行使刑事权力以维持压迫等级制度。欧文·高夫曼的著作《污名：被破坏身份的管理笔记》(1963)介绍了污名的形成性定义，至今仍被社会科学家广泛采用。然而，正如欣肖正确地指出的那样，自戈夫曼概念化以来的几十年里，关于污名的研究和理论出现了爆炸性的增长“(欣肖2009：25)。然而，事实证明，犯罪学对于打破污名的既定含义犹豫不决--留下了污名是什么，以及如何将其作为监禁国家的延伸而被武器化的问题。此外，最近对大规模监禁对囚犯家属的“附带影响”的纪律关注(Hagan和Dinovitzer，1999：121)使污名在建立一个被认为对其亲属的罪行负责和共谋的公民阶层中的作用显而易见。这项研究将库珀和怀特(2017：3)对污名的分析应用于当代家庭，认为耻辱是一种“官僚化的暴力形式”，该研究主张建立一种“包容”的惩罚社会学，使囚犯的家庭成为制造犯罪世界的动态参与者。此外，本文还介绍了耻辱作为国家行为者通过刑事法律机制征服被边缘化社区的政治工具的理论反思。采用福柯和兰奇埃尔的主体性概念作为“自我创造和被创造的双重面孔”(Krause and Schramm 2011：128)--并以美国作为一个说明性的案例研究--我认为，囚犯家庭的经历可以映射到围绕耻辱、监禁公民身份和权力的更广泛的论点上，第一次全面考虑家庭作为一个积极的政治主体。

A coherent theoretical understanding of stigma has long pervaded the academic imagination, as divergent stigma-concepts have both contextualised and problematised normative frameworks. As an object of criminological evaluation, the consequences of stigmatisation connote a distinctive pattern of marginalisation for offenders and their families--in which penal power is exercised to maintain hierarchies of oppression. Erving Goffman's book Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (1963) introduced the formative definition of stigma still widely adopted by social scientists. Yet, as Hinshaw rightly suggests, '[t]here has been an explosive growth of research and theorising about stigma in the decades since Goffman's conceptualisation' (Hinshaw 2009: 25). Criminology, however, has proven hesitant to disrupt settled meanings of stigma--leaving questions as to what stigma is and how it might be weaponised as an extension of the carceral state. Further to this, a recent disciplinary preoccupation with the 'collateral effects' of mass imprisonment on the families of prisoners (Hagan and Dinovitzer 1999: 121) has rendered visible the role of stigma in constructing a class of citizens deemed responsible for and complicit in their relative's offence. Applying Cooper and Whyte's (2017: 3) analysis of stigma as 'a bureaucratised form of violence' to the contemporary family, this study advocates for an 'inclusive' sociology of punishment that legitimates the prisoner's family as a dynamic participant in criminogenic worldmaking. Furthermore, this thesis introduces a theoretical reconsideration of stigma as a political tool operated by state actors to subjugate marginalised communities by way of criminal legal mechanisms. Adopting Foucault and Rancière's notion of subjectivity as the 'double face of self-making and being made' (Krause and Schramm 2011: 128) --and using the United States as an illustrative case study--I contend that the experiences of prisoners' families can be mapped onto broader arguments around stigma, carceral citizenship, and power, providing the first full-length consideration of the family as an active political subject.