Neuroimmunotoxicology: autoimmunity, inflammation, age, environmental agents

炎症是机体对感染、损伤和创伤的正常反应。在这个框架下，炎症可以被视为一系列复杂的局部免疫反应，用于处理对细胞微环境的威胁。这些反应是为了中和入侵的病原体，修复受伤的组织，促进伤口愈合以恢复组织稳态。神经炎症反应在各种神经退行性疾病（如帕金森病、阿尔茨海默病和亨廷顿病）以及脑损伤（包括创伤和中风）中都有重要作用。最近的证据表明，由于暴露于重金属和农药等环境化学物质而导致的脑损伤表明存在炎症成分（Kraft和Harry， 2011）。对于每一种情况，识别和描述反应的神经保护和伤害方面仍然是一个主要的虚幻问题。虽然神经炎症被认为是继发性损伤的中介，但局部免疫反应也对创伤组织有有益的影响。

Inflammation is a normal response of the organism to infection, injury, and trauma. In this framework, inflammation can be viewed as a complicated series of local immune responses that serve to deal with a threat to the cellular microenvironment. Such reactions are initiated to neutralize invading pathogens, repair injured tissues, and promote wound healing to restore tissue homeostasis. A Significant contributions from neuroinflammatory responses have been implied in various neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons Disease, Alzheimers Disease, and Huntington Disease, as well as brain injury including trauma and stroke. More recent evidence suggests that brain injury as a result of environmental chemical exposure such as heavy metals and pesticides indicates an inflammatory component (Kraft and Harry, 2011). For each of these conditions, identifying and characterizing the neuroprotective versus the injurious aspects of the response still remains a major illusive question. While neuroinflammation has been considered a mediator of secondary damage, the local immune response also has beneficial effects on the traumatized tissue. Microglia serve as the resident mononuclear phagocytes of the brain and are highly heterogeneous within the healthy CNS. They comprise only 10% of the total cell population of the brain; yet, they have multiple morphological and potential functional profiles depending on their environment. Characterization of functional differences between the various microglia structural phenotypes continues to be a major question in addressing the functional role of these cells. One limitation has been with the lack of a good model system where the brain macrophage response is limited to resident microglia and does not involve infiltrating macrophages. This has also served as a limitation in both understanding the role of a brain macrophage response in neurodegenerative disease and developing successful therapeutic approaches. We have established such a model in the mouse by utilizing a known neurotoxicant, the organometal, trimethyltin (TMT), to create focal sites of injury in the absence of an altered blood brain barrier and infiltration of blood borne cells. Using this model we are able to examine the role of microglia in the cell death and clearance of dentate granule neurons as well as their role in promoting survival of hippocampal pyramidal neurons. The heterogeneity of microglia and neuronal responses allows us to characterize the unique properties of neuroinflammation that contribute to neuronal death and neuronal survival. The identification of such factors would then be beneficial in translating these events to a therapeutic intervention for ischemia/stroke or traumatic brain injury to minimize neuronal loss. Further work to identify the distinct and unique properties of microglia and neuroinflammation has been conducted using a slice culture model. We examined the contribution of microglia to the neuronal cell death associated with expression of the mutant Huntingtin gene. In this model we have demonstrated an early neuroprotective effect of microglia and a role for microglia in the clearance of damaged neurites (Kraft et al., 2011). In a effort to examine changes that may occur with chronic neuroinflammation, we have examined regional susceptibility for neuronal loss and microglia activation in the HIV-1 Tg rat (Rao et al., 2011). Using this model, we hope to identify unique features of the dopamine neurons that make them susceptible to neuroinflammatory events and possible contribute to the environmental link suggested between pesticide exposure and Parkinson's Disease.