"Evolutionary implications of sex reducing heritable variation: Disaggregated individuals, haploid leks, and the Red Queen on asexual Red Bull"

以前我们表明，与传统思想相反，性别减少了遗传变异。在这里，我们将研究性别的含义不是为了遗传混合，而是性别的功能是过滤掉新的变异。首先，我们将用性来划分新的个体和世代，而缺乏性则定义了一个个体。许多进化和生态学都依赖于能够识别个体。对个体定义的修改可能会对我们的世界观产生深远的影响，例如立即表明，专性无性生物不可能是适应性的，因为它们的进化轨迹是由漂移和突变而不是选择主导的。其次，如果个体是由性别划分的，那么单倍体生物（例如动物的卵子和精子）可以被认为是独立的个体。这意味着性冲突和性选择可以发生在受精卵细胞内部，例如雌性单倍体细胞核决定与哪个雄性单倍体细胞核融合。我们将寻找这样的影响，并对它们进行数学建模。第三，也许最好的地方来看看是否性别减少遗传变异是在生物体中只与自己发生性关系。包括自花受精在内的自性是许多生物体的一种可行的繁殖方式，但很少有人研究它们的遗传多样性。第四，红皇后是两个物种之间共同进化军备竞赛的首要数学模型，红皇后（来自爱丽丝梦游仙境）尽可能快地奔跑以保持原地。在这些模型中，增加的遗传变异是保持女王运转的引擎，而性是她引擎的燃料。但是，如果性减少了变异，那么也许红皇后应该跳过-跳过性-以便跑得更快，跟上她的共同进化对手。我们将相应地修改数学模型，这样红皇后就不会像纸牌屋一样崩溃。这应该对疾病进化和性别进化的理论产生巨大的影响。

Previously we showed that, contrary to conventional thought, sex decreases heritable variation. Here we will investigate the implications of sex not being for genetic mixing, but rather the function of sex is to filter out new variation. First, we will use sex to demarcate new individuals and generations, while lack of sex defines an individual. Much of evolution and ecology depends on being able to identify individuals. A modified definition of individuals may have profound effects on our view of the world, such as instantly showing that obligately asexual organisms cannot be adaptive because their evolutionary trajectories are dominated by drift and mutation, not selection. Second, if individuals are demarcated by sex, then haploid organisms (e.g. animal eggs and sperm) can each be considered separate individuals. This implies that sexual conflict and sexual selection can be occurring inside of a fertilised egg cell, such as a female haploid nucleus deciding which male haploid nucleus to fuse with. We will look for such effects and model them mathematically. Third, probably the best place to see whether sex decreases heritable variation is in organisms that only have sex with themselves. Self-sex, including self-fertilisation, is a viable means of reproduction for many organisms, but details about their genetic diversity are seldom studied. Fourth, the Red Queen is a premier mathematical model of a co-evolutionary arms-race between two species, where the Red Queen (from Alice in Wonderland) runs as fast as she can to stay in place. In these models, increased heritable variation is the engine that keeps the queen running, with sex being the fuel for her engine. But, if sex reduces variation, then maybe the Red Queen should skip - skip sex - in order to run faster to keep up with her co-evolutionary adversaries. We will modify the mathematical models accordingly, so that the Red Queen does not crumble like a house of cards. This should have huge implications for theories of evolution of disease and evolution of sex.