"Evolutionary implications of sex reducing heritable variation: Disaggregated individuals, haploid leks, and the Red Queen on asexual Red Bull"

之前我们发现，与传统观点相反，性别减少了遗传变异。在这里，我们将研究性别的含义，而不是基因混合，而是性别的功能是过滤掉新的变异。首先，我们将用性来区分新个体和新一代，而缺乏性则定义了一个个体。进化和生态学在很大程度上取决于个体的识别能力。修改后的个体定义可能会对我们的世界观产生深远的影响，比如立即表明，绝对无性生物不能适应，因为它们的进化轨迹是由漂变和突变主导的，而不是选择。其次，如果个体是按性别划分的，那么单倍体生物（例如动物的卵子和精子）可以被认为是独立的个体。这意味着性冲突和性选择可能发生在受精卵细胞内，例如雌性单倍体核决定与哪个雄性单倍体核融合。我们将寻找这样的效应，并建立数学模型。第三，要想知道性行为是否会减少遗传变异，最好的地方可能是那些只与自己发生性行为的生物体。对许多生物来说，包括自我受精在内的自性生殖是一种可行的繁殖方式，但有关其基因多样性的细节很少被研究。第四，红桃皇后是两个物种之间共同进化军备竞赛的首要数学模型，红桃皇后（来自《爱丽丝梦游仙境》）尽可能快地奔跑以保持原地不动。在这些模型中，不断增加的遗传变异是使蚁后保持运转的引擎，而性是这台引擎的燃料。但是，如果性行为减少了变异，那么也许红皇后应该跳过——跳过性行为——以便跑得更快，跟上她共同进化的对手。我们将相应地修改数学模型，这样红皇后就不会像纸牌屋一样坍塌。这将对疾病进化理论和性进化理论产生巨大影响。

Previously we showed that, contrary to conventional thought, sex decreases heritable variation. Here we will investigate the implications of sex not being for genetic mixing, but rather the function of sex is to filter out new variation. First, we will use sex to demarcate new individuals and generations, while lack of sex defines an individual. Much of evolution and ecology depends on being able to identify individuals. A modified definition of individuals may have profound effects on our view of the world, such as instantly showing that obligately asexual organisms cannot be adaptive because their evolutionary trajectories are dominated by drift and mutation, not selection. Second, if individuals are demarcated by sex, then haploid organisms (e.g. animal eggs and sperm) can each be considered separate individuals. This implies that sexual conflict and sexual selection can be occurring inside of a fertilised egg cell, such as a female haploid nucleus deciding which male haploid nucleus to fuse with. We will look for such effects and model them mathematically. Third, probably the best place to see whether sex decreases heritable variation is in organisms that only have sex with themselves. Self-sex, including self-fertilisation, is a viable means of reproduction for many organisms, but details about their genetic diversity are seldom studied. Fourth, the Red Queen is a premier mathematical model of a co-evolutionary arms-race between two species, where the Red Queen (from Alice in Wonderland) runs as fast as she can to stay in place. In these models, increased heritable variation is the engine that keeps the queen running, with sex being the fuel for her engine. But, if sex reduces variation, then maybe the Red Queen should skip - skip sex - in order to run faster to keep up with her co-evolutionary adversaries. We will modify the mathematical models accordingly, so that the Red Queen does not crumble like a house of cards. This should have huge implications for theories of evolution of disease and evolution of sex.