Collaborative Research: The Embeddedness of Indirect and Generalized Reciprocity

一般交换系统是指物质、社会或其他形式的支持在三个或三个以上的参与者（个人、组织和国家）之间单向流动的系统。研究人员指出，广义交换系统是人类道德和广泛社会团结进化的基础。这是因为，与直接交换关系不同，它往往将参与者与更广泛的群体或网络分开，广义交换将参与者嵌入更大的关系结构中。先前的研究已经确定了广义交换系统的两个主要基础：广义互惠发生在一个获得利益或帮助的行为者通过帮助第三方（你帮助她是因为我帮助了你）而“向前支付”时，而间接互惠发生在一个向另一个提供利益的行为者随后得到第三方的帮助时（他帮助我是因为我帮助了你）。这两种类型都可以构成广义交换系统的基础，但它们基于非常不同的机制，广义互惠源于一个人因接受帮助而体验到的感激之情，而间接互惠则基于保持良好或“亲社会”声誉的前景。重要的是，几乎所有先前的工作都独立地解决了这两个过程。因此，对一系列基本问题缺乏答案：如果是任何一个过程，哪一个是广义交换系统中合作的更坚实基础？每种结构如何促进（或破坏）嵌入其中的行为者的亲社会动机？每种类型的结构如何影响对广义交换系统内的人与系统外的人的信任和合作，即，陌生人？这些过程如何结合联合收割机来影响真实的世界中的亲社会性和团结性？这些问题具有很大的社会重要性（因为它们关注与“邻居”和陌生人的亲社会性）和广泛的相关性（从最小的群体到全球社区的潜在应用）。因此，研究的见解可以为增加亲社会性以及促进日益分化的人口成员之间的整合，凝聚力和团结提供可操作的处方。本研究旨在实现五个广泛的研究目标：i）概述参数和两个对照实验，旨在测试广义和间接互惠支持广义交换系统中合作的相对和互动力量，ii）概述参数和实验测试广义与间接互惠系统在促进亲社会动机和行为方面的相对力量，即，iii）使用受控实验室实验和基于代理的模型来建立，与将广义互惠和间接互惠视为独立系统的先前工作相比，这两个过程更准确（并卓有成效地）被视为一个综合系统的一部分，iv）研究不同的社会网络结构如何影响广义交换系统中的亲社会行为，以及v）用一个关于民族国家之间援助流动的大型数据集来测试我们的论点中的预测。 因此，这项研究的总体目标是解决一个基本的研究问题，广泛的跨学科的重要性，使用多种方法，包括实验室实验，基于代理的模型，和国际援助的宏观层面的数据。

SES-1626023David MelamedOhio State UniversitySES-1626056Brent SimpsonUniversity of South Carolina ColumbiaGeneralized exchange systems are those where material, social, or other forms of support flow unilaterally between three or more actors (individuals, organizations, and nations). Researchers have noted that generalized exchange systems are the basis for the evolution of human morality and widespread social solidarity. This is because, unlike direct exchange relationships, which tend to set those involved apart from a broader group or network, generalized exchange embeds actors in a much larger structure of relations. Prior research has identified two primary bases for generalized exchange systems: Generalized reciprocity occurs when an actor who receives benefits or help "pays it forward" by helping a third party (you help her because I helped you) while indirect reciprocity occurs when an actor who provides benefits to another is subsequently helped by a third party (he helps me because I helped you). Either type could form the basis of generalized exchange systems but they are based on very different mechanisms, with generalized reciprocity stemming from the gratitude that one experiences as a consequence of receiving help and indirect reciprocity based on the prospect of maintaining a good, or "prosocial" reputation. Importantly, almost all prior work has addressed these two processes independently. As a consequence, there is a lack answers to a range of fundamental questions: Which, if either process, is a stronger basis of cooperation in generalized exchange systems? How does each type of structure promote (or undermine) prosocial motivations of actors embedded within them? How does each type of structure impact trust towards - and cooperation with - those within the generalized exchange system versus those outside the system, i.e., strangers? And how do the processes combine to impact prosociality and solidarity in the real world? These questions are of great societal importance (as they focus on prosociality both with "neighbors" and strangers) and of broad relevance (with potential applications from the smallest groups to global communities). Insights from the research could therefore yield actionable prescriptions for increasing prosociality as well as facilitating integration, cohesion, and solidarity among members of an increasingly differentiated population. The research seeks to accomplish five broad research objectives: i) Outline arguments and two controlled experiments designed to test the relative and interactive power of generalized and indirect reciprocity for supporting cooperation in generalized exchange systems, ii) Outline arguments and an experimental test of the relative power of generalized versus indirect reciprocity systems in promoting prosocial motivations and behaviors towards strangers, i.e., towards those outside of the generalized exchange system, iii) Use controlled laboratory experiments and agent-based models to establish that, in contrast to prior work that has viewed generalized and indirect reciprocity as separate systems, the two processes are more accurately (and fruitfully) viewed as parts of an integrated system, iv) Examine how different social network structures affect prosocial behaviors in generalized exchange systems, and v) Test predictions from our arguments with a large dataset on the flow of aid between nation-states. Thus, the overarching goal of this research is to tackle a fundamental research problem, of broad interdisciplinary importance, using multiple methods, including laboratory experiments, agent-based models, and macro-level data on international aid.