Collaborative Research: The Embeddedness of Indirect and Generalized Reciprocity

泛化交换系统是指物质、社会或其他形式的支持在三个或更多参与者（个人、组织和国家）之间单方面流动的系统。研究人员指出，广义交换系统是人类道德进化和广泛社会团结的基础。这是因为，与直接交换关系不同，直接交换关系往往将参与者与更广泛的群体或网络分开，广义交换将参与者嵌入到更大的关系结构中。先前的研究已经确定了广义交换系统的两个主要基础：广义互惠发生在一个行为者通过帮助第三方（你帮助她是因为我帮助了你）来获得利益或帮助的“传递”时，而间接互惠发生在一个行为者为另一个人提供利益之后得到第三方的帮助时（他帮助我是因为我帮助了你）。这两种类型都可以构成广义交换系统的基础，但它们基于非常不同的机制，广义互惠源于一个人在接受帮助时所经历的感激，而间接互惠则基于维持良好或“亲社会”声誉的前景。重要的是，几乎所有先前的工作都独立地解决了这两个过程。因此，对一系列基本问题缺乏答案：在广义交换系统中，如果这两个过程都存在，那么哪个是更强大的合作基础？每种类型的结构如何促进（或破坏）嵌入其中的行动者的亲社会动机？每种类型的结构如何影响对广义交换系统内的人与系统外的人（即陌生人）的信任和合作？这些过程如何结合起来影响现实世界中的亲社会和团结？这些问题具有重大的社会重要性（因为它们关注的是与“邻居”和陌生人的亲社会性）和广泛的相关性（从最小的群体到全球社区的潜在应用）。因此，从研究中得出的见解可以为增加亲社会性以及促进日益分化的人口成员之间的融合、凝聚力和团结提供可行的处方。该研究旨在实现五个广泛的研究目标：i)概述论点和两个对照实验，旨在测试广义互惠和间接互惠在支持广义交换系统中合作方面的相对力量和相互作用；ii)概述论点和实验测试广义互惠和间接互惠系统在促进对陌生人（即对广义交换系统外的人）的亲社会动机和行为方面的相对力量；iii)使用受控的实验室实验和基于主体的模型来确定，与之前将广义互惠和间接互惠视为独立系统的工作相比，这两个过程更准确（和有效）地被视为一个综合系统的一部分，iv)检查不同的社会网络结构如何影响广义交换系统中的亲社会行为，v)使用关于民族国家之间援助流动的大型数据集测试我们的论点预测。因此，本研究的总体目标是解决一个具有广泛跨学科重要性的基础研究问题，使用多种方法，包括实验室实验、基于主体的模型和宏观层面的国际援助数据。

SES-1626023David MelamedOhio State UniversitySES-1626056Brent SimpsonUniversity of South Carolina ColumbiaGeneralized exchange systems are those where material, social, or other forms of support flow unilaterally between three or more actors (individuals, organizations, and nations). Researchers have noted that generalized exchange systems are the basis for the evolution of human morality and widespread social solidarity. This is because, unlike direct exchange relationships, which tend to set those involved apart from a broader group or network, generalized exchange embeds actors in a much larger structure of relations. Prior research has identified two primary bases for generalized exchange systems: Generalized reciprocity occurs when an actor who receives benefits or help "pays it forward" by helping a third party (you help her because I helped you) while indirect reciprocity occurs when an actor who provides benefits to another is subsequently helped by a third party (he helps me because I helped you). Either type could form the basis of generalized exchange systems but they are based on very different mechanisms, with generalized reciprocity stemming from the gratitude that one experiences as a consequence of receiving help and indirect reciprocity based on the prospect of maintaining a good, or "prosocial" reputation. Importantly, almost all prior work has addressed these two processes independently. As a consequence, there is a lack answers to a range of fundamental questions: Which, if either process, is a stronger basis of cooperation in generalized exchange systems? How does each type of structure promote (or undermine) prosocial motivations of actors embedded within them? How does each type of structure impact trust towards - and cooperation with - those within the generalized exchange system versus those outside the system, i.e., strangers? And how do the processes combine to impact prosociality and solidarity in the real world? These questions are of great societal importance (as they focus on prosociality both with "neighbors" and strangers) and of broad relevance (with potential applications from the smallest groups to global communities). Insights from the research could therefore yield actionable prescriptions for increasing prosociality as well as facilitating integration, cohesion, and solidarity among members of an increasingly differentiated population. The research seeks to accomplish five broad research objectives: i) Outline arguments and two controlled experiments designed to test the relative and interactive power of generalized and indirect reciprocity for supporting cooperation in generalized exchange systems, ii) Outline arguments and an experimental test of the relative power of generalized versus indirect reciprocity systems in promoting prosocial motivations and behaviors towards strangers, i.e., towards those outside of the generalized exchange system, iii) Use controlled laboratory experiments and agent-based models to establish that, in contrast to prior work that has viewed generalized and indirect reciprocity as separate systems, the two processes are more accurately (and fruitfully) viewed as parts of an integrated system, iv) Examine how different social network structures affect prosocial behaviors in generalized exchange systems, and v) Test predictions from our arguments with a large dataset on the flow of aid between nation-states. Thus, the overarching goal of this research is to tackle a fundamental research problem, of broad interdisciplinary importance, using multiple methods, including laboratory experiments, agent-based models, and macro-level data on international aid.