Child birth and child care and female labor force participation in an urban space.

在20世纪90年代，南欧和北欧之间传统的区域生育率差异已经逆转，许多研究人员支持一种新的假设，即发达国家的生育率往往随着女性劳动力参与率的高而上升。Esping Andersen（1990;2000）提出了一个假设，即女性的劳动参与是由儿童保育的提供程度决定的，而儿童保育的提供程度又受到福利国家制度类型的影响。我对瑞典和美国的儿童保育进行了比较研究，调查了大都市地区正规儿童保育机构的位置，以及关于儿童保育和女性劳动参与的社会政策。在瑞典，一个典型的社会民主福利国家，一个社区为儿童社区提供托儿服务。在规划良好的高层住宅区，公共交通便利，这有效地服务于工作的父母，更多的托儿中心往往位于步行距离内，这也有助于工作的父母。从时间地理的角度对一位职场女性的时间日记进行研究，揭示了职场父母既能兼顾工作又能照顾孩子的真实生活状况。大多数瑞典女性在孩子出生后，会休一年左右的带薪假，并在孩子还小的时候兼职工作。她们的男性伴侣在照顾孩子和家务方面做得很好，通常在正常工作时间之外没有额外的工作。瑞典的社会、城市和交通规划也很好地帮助了工作的父母。在被称为剩余福利国家的美国，儿童保育由市场原则提供，没有国家干预，只有低收入家庭才能获得儿童保育援助、食品券和医疗补助。福利国家的这种双重结构在城市空间中表现为住宅隔离，这种隔离在20世纪70年代俄亥俄州哥伦布大都会区中心城市学区开始使用公交车后得到加强。在郊区，许多营利性的托儿中心都坐落在一条带有大型停车场的车道旁。为了服务中高收入居民，托儿行业的主要连锁机构都位于郊区。另一方面，在市中心地区，低收入人群和许多黑人依赖社会福利和慈善机构。政府为贫困的工薪家庭，特别是贫困的单身母亲提供儿童保育援助，并为弱势儿童提供学前教育计划。许多非营利性的儿童保育中心，无论是信仰组织还是非信仰组织，都在贫困社区提供较便宜的儿童保育服务。课外活动是由非营利机构提供的，比如位于市中心附近的男孩女孩俱乐部。从20世纪80年代开始的福利国家结构调整增加了弱势社区志愿部门的重要性。少

In the 1990s, a traditional regional difference of fertility between the South Europe and the North Europe had reversed, and many researchers have supported a new hypothesis that fertility rates tend to rise with a high female labor force participation rate among the developed countries. Esping Andersen(1990;2000) has provided a hypothesis that female labor participation is determined by the degree of the provision of child care, which is affected by the regime type of welfare state. I have engaged a comparative study of child care in Sweden and United State, investigating the location of formal child care providers in a metropolitan region, as well as the social policy concerning child care and female labor participation.In Sweden known as a typical social democrat welfare state, a commune provides child care in a children's neighborhood. In a well planned high rise residential areas, with good accessibility of public transportation, which serves effectively for working parents, sever … More al child care centers tend to be located within a walking distance, which also helps working parents. A study of a working female's time diary from a time geographic perspective reveals a real life situation of working parents who are able to cope with work and child care. The most of Swedish females, after child birth, take a paid leave for about a year, and work part-time while children are young. Their male partners participate very well in child care and household chores, usually without extra work after regular work hours. The social, urban, and transportation planning in Sweden is also excellent in helping working parents.In the United Sates, which is known as a residual welfare state, child care is provided by a market principle without the state's intervention, and only poor income families are allowed to get access to child care assistance, food stamps and Medicaid. This dual structure of a welfare state is revealed in an urban space as a residential segregation, which was intensified after a start of busing in a central city school district in the 1970s in the Columbus metropolitan region, Ohio. In the suburbs, many for profit child care centers are located along a drive way with a large parking lot. Major chains of the child care industry are located in suburban areas in order to serve high or middle income residents. On the other hand, in the inner city areas, low income people as well as many blacks depend on social welfare and charity. Government provides child care assistance for poor working families, especially poor single mothers, and Head Start Program for disadvantaged children. Many non-profit child care centers of faith organization as well as non-faith organization, provide less expensive child care in a poor neighborhood. After school programs are provided by non-profit agencies, such as Boys and Girls Club, which is located near a downtown area. Restructuring of a welfare state started from the 1980s increased the importance of the voluntary sector in disadvantaged neighborhoods. Less