The Philosophy of Value and the Limits of Realism : An Inquiry into Practical Truth

道德现实主义者会说，道德推理是一种实践推理，需要扁平的理性，以商议真理为目标。他可能会补充说，这种实践推理，道德推理，并不排除某些类型的理论推理；而平面理性意味着每个理性人都会声称拥有的基本理性。他可能是苏格拉底门外汉类型的理性主义者，也可能是非认知主义者。D·威金斯试图限制对思辨真理的趋同要求；他总是强调我们对所面临的情况的性格反应的认知方面。他似乎假设每个人的认知能力可以根据个人的成长、经历、修养以及他所关心的问题、兴趣和职业等而在不同的程度上得到不同的认识。B·威廉姆斯否认我们可以通过深思熟虑获得道德知识，但他并不否认反思性论证可以在我们做出行动过程的决策中发挥重要作用。他甚至可能不否认，对于现代理性的人来说，反思性论证将是在敌对各方之间达成决定性决定的唯一理性有效的方式。他确实否认我们获得道德知识。现在，你可以想象另一种现实主义者。保罗·格莱斯笔下富有想象力的坎托尔是一位非常老练的形而上学者，一点也不是门外汉，最后，我想通过与他的比较，来判断我们苏格拉底门外汉的地位。坎托尔无疑是现代道德现实主义者的一个可能的工作榜样。

A moral realist would say moral reasoning is a kind of practical reasoning which requires flat rationality and aims at deliberative truth. He might add that this kind of practical reasoning, moral reasoning, does not exclude some types of theoretical reasoning ; and that flat rationality means the basic kind of rationality which every rational person would claim to have. He may be a Socratic layman type of rationalist and also a non-cognitivist.D.Wiggins has tried to limit the demand for convergence on deliberative truth ; and he always emphasizes the cognitive aspects of our dispositional responses to the situations we are confronted with. He seems to be assuming that each individual's cognitive abilities can be differently realized, in different degrees, according to her upbringing, experiences, cultivation, on the one hand, and his concerns, interests, occupations, and so on, on the other.B.Williams denies we can acquire knowledge of moral affairs through deliberative reflection ; but he does not deny reflective argument can play a meaningful role in our making decision of the course of action. He may not deny even that reflective argument would be a sole rationally effective way to reach conclusive decision among antagonistic parties for modernized rational people. He does deny our acquisition of moral knowledge.Now you can imagine a realist of another kind. Paul Grice's fanciful Kantotle is a remarkably sophisticated metaphysician, not in the least a layman, by comparison with whom, in the last instance, I'd like to judge the position of our Socratic layman. Kantotle is surely a possible working model for a modern moral realist.