Gender Stratification in European Welfare States: A comparative study

欧洲福利国家的性别分层：代际关怀政策、劳动力市场政策和文化规范对性别平等成果影响的比较研究1。概述分析国家之间的性别平等结果的变化，并按国家内的阶级和公民身份，将有助于我们了解哪些政策星座促进两性在社会各阶层的平等定位。研究问题：a）是否应用理论上更充分的性别平等指数（GEI）改变我们对整个欧洲性别平等的理解？B）护理政策、劳动力市场政策和文化规范如何相互作用，产生了所观察到的各国性别平等差异？（c）在国家内部，护理政策、劳动力市场政策和文化规范对两性平等的影响如何因阶级和公民身份而异？2.在大多数情况下，政策制定者尚未充分认识到无偿护理是一种劳动，并加大努力减少这种情况。最近的研究揭示了老年人护理的重要性：妇女在各国提供更多的支持（Schmid等人，2011年），影响就业模式和收入（Szebehely等人，2014）。现有的两性平等指数都没有充分纳入这些方面。欧洲各国之间存在很大差异，很可能反映了相互照顾政策、劳动力市场政策和文化规范的差异。护理政策可以减少或加强护理劳动的性别分工。劳动力市场政策（如工作时间、工资谈判等）也影响政策的成功（Anxo等人，Fagan & Norman，2013：215中提及）。最后，国家关于家庭角色的文化规范也塑造了这种性别分工（Fagan & Norman，2013：201）。在国家内部，政策对处境不同的人产生不同的影响。社会分层的概念（Esping-Andersen，1990年）将被扩展到研究政策的再分配能力，不仅（重新）结构的阶级等级，但性别和公民秩序。在移徙工人或移民可能只有有限或有条件的劳动力市场权利和获得护理服务或资金转移的情况下，公民身份是相关的。3.方法Ragin（1987）将定量跨国数据分析（面向变量）与个案详细定性分析（面向案例的方法）相结合。a）衡量性别平等成果使用定量方法为改进的GEI制定框架。现有的衡量两性平等成果的数据将用于计算两性差距。该指数将适用于尽可能多的欧洲国家;目标是包括欧盟28国、挪威和瑞士。B）解释国家间性别平等的差异通过分析归纳，将现有文献的结果抽象为命题，然后使用（国家间）政策文件和微观数据，绘制选定国家的护理和劳动力市场政策和文化规范（自变量）。将对这些提议进行测试和完善，以解释这些变量如何相互作用，从而产生所观察到的两性平等水平。将研究提供服务的形式和权利的条件。此外，还将利用（国际）社会调查数据，比较按阶级和公民身份划分的关于家庭角色的不同文化规范，以评估它们如何影响一个国家内两性平等成果的观察到的差异。

Gender Stratification in European Welfare States: A comparative study of the effects of intergenerational care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms on gender equality outcomes1. OverviewAnalysing the variation in gender equality outcomes between countries, and by class and citizenship within countries, will contribute to our understanding of which policy constellations promote the equal positioning of both sexes across all layers of society.Research questions:a) Does applying a theoretically more adequate Gender Equality Index (GEI) change our understanding of gender equality across Europe? b) How do care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms interact to produce the observed variation in gender equality by country?c) Within countries, how do the effects of care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms on gender equality vary by class and citizenship?2. ContextCare and gender equalityIn most cases, policy makers have yet to fully recognise unpaid care as labour and increase efforts to lessen this. Recent studies shed light on the significance of eldercare: women provide more support across countries (Schmid et al., 2011), impacting employment patterns and income (Szebehely et al., 2014). None of the available gender equality indices adequately incorporate these aspects. Variation between countriesThere is significant variation between European countries, most likely reflecting differences in the interaction care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms. Care policies can reduce or reinforce the gendered division of care labour. Labour market policy (e.g. working hours, wage bargaining, etc.) also influences the success of policies (Anxo et al., 2007 mentioned in Fagan & Norman, 2013: 215). Finally, country's cultural norms on family roles additionally shape this gendered division (Fagan & Norman, 2013: 201). Variation within countriesWithin countries, policies affect contrastingly situated people differently. The concept of social stratification (Esping-Andersen, 1990) will be expanded on to study policy's redistributive capacities to (re)structure not only class hierarchies, but the gender and citizenship order. Citizenship is relevant in cases where migrant workers or immigrants may have limited or conditional labour market rights and access to care services or financial transfers. 3. MethodologyRagin's (1987) combined strategy of quantitative cross-national data analysis (variable-oriented) alongside detailed qualitative analysis of individual cases (case-oriented approach).a) Measuring gender equality outcomesUsing quantitative methods to develop a framework for an improved GEI. Existing data measuring gender equality outcomes will be used to calculate gender gaps. The index will be applied to as many European countries as possible; the aim is to include EU-28, Norway and Switzerland. Variation between countries will be mapped, and the results compared to the EIGE's GEI.b) Explaining the variation in gender equality between countriesFindings of existing literature will be abstracted into propositions through analytic induction.Following this, the selected country's care and labour market policies and cultural norms (independent variables) will be mapped using (inter-)national policy documents and micro-data. The propositions will be tested and refined to explain how these variables interact to produce the observed levels of gender equality.c) Analysing within-country variation in gender equality by class and citizenshipQualitative analysis of national micro-data and policy documents. The form of provision of services and conditionality of entitlement will be studied. In addition, varying cultural norms on family roles by class and citizenship status will be compared using (inter-)national social survey data to assess how they affect observed variation in gender equality outcomes within a country.