How does speaking confidence effect students ability to participate in higher education, employment, and civic life, with reference to working class

在整个英国，有能力自信说话的人和没有能力说话的人之间存在着明显的鸿沟。研究表明，说话自信的学生更有可能在学术上取得成功，从而在就业方面取得更大的进步(Druckman和Bjork，1994)。在目前的教育氛围中，可以看到，学生接受的教育主要集中在考试成功上。威尔金森在20世纪70年代的开创性工作中引入了口才的概念，阐述了说和听在教育中的重要性。然而，今天，整个教育领域的演讲概念似乎停滞不前。我提出的研究的一个基本目的是了解高等教育中是如何对待谈话的。到目前为止，围绕演讲在高等教育中的重要性的研究还很匮乏。因此，我提议的研究的目的是认真对待口语自信在高等教育中的作用；探索有机会发展基本沟通技能的学生和没有机会发展基本沟通技能的学生之间的差距；最重要的是，设计新的方法和原则，将沟通自信纳入高等教育课程。文献综述《高等教育中的奥秘》，Davies等人(2017，p.968)解释说，在过去的十年里，关于课堂话语价值的研究有所增加……然而，到目前为止，这些研究大多是在小学/小学进行的。除了缺乏支持在高等教育中考虑演讲的必要性的研究外，与大学相关的传统教学文化限制了对话教学的范围。尽管“最近教学范式从重视和鼓励学生保持沉默转变”，听写授课的传统仍然很难改变(Remedios等人，2008年，第201页)。因为通常认为教师知道得最多，因此认为学生没有必要提供他们的观点“(Davies等人，2017，p.971)。然而，学生不仅是被动的听者，而且是信息的来源，这一点至关重要，因为有证据表明，学生从对话对话中受益匪浅(Remedios等人，2008年)。尽管文献中有证据表明话语是学习环境中的关键，但也有强有力的证据表明，在课堂上创造有价值的话语是困难的，因为许多学生没有信心也没有技能来充分参与对话讨论。在高等教育中，口语技能教学的缺失可能是与口语评估和口语练习相关的焦虑的原因之一。口语焦虑有许多不同的形式，从交际焦虑到公共演讲焦虑，前者是指一个人在实际或预期的交际中的恐惧或焦虑水平(史等人，2015年，第125页)，后者是一种“因实际或预期的口头陈述的实施而产生的社交焦虑”(史等人，2015年，第125页)。实际上，在公共场合发表演讲或讲话时感到焦虑“是一种常见的体验”(Ship，et al.2015年，第125页)。总体而言，有一系列社会文化因素影响了PSA：对语言的信心、对知识的信心、先前的教育经历和对角色的期望影响了学习者对学术演讲的贡献意愿(Engin，2017，p.78)。然而，一个共同的因素似乎与自信有关--具体地说，就是由于缺乏口语练习而导致的缺乏自信。最切实的解决办法是教授学生他们所需要的技能，这些技能使他们在公开场合演讲时变得更加自信。

Across the United Kingdom there is a clear divide between those who have the ability to speak confidently and those who do not. Research indicates that students with a greater speaking confidence are much more likely to succeed in academia, and thus advance further in employment (Druckman and Bjork, 1994). In the current education climate it is seen that students are educated in a way that focuses predominately on exam success. Pioneering work in the 1970s by Wilkinson introduced the notion of oracy, which framed the significance of speaking and listening in education. However, today the notion of oracy across education appears at a standstill. A fundamental purpose of my proposed research will be to understand how talk is approached in higher education. To date, there is a shortage or research surrounding the importance of oracy in higher education. Therefore it is the purpose of my proposed research to take seriously the role of speaking confidence in higher education; to explore the divide between students who have had the opportunity to develop essential communication skills and those who have not; and, most importantly, to devise new methods and principles for incorporating communication confidence within the higher education curriculum. Literature review"Oracy" in Higher Education Davies et al., (2017,p. 968) have explained, over the "past decade, there has been an increase in research on the value of classroom talk... however to date, most of this research has been in elementary/primary schools". Along with the lack of research supporting the need for oracy to be taken into account in higher education, it is the traditional teaching culture associated with universities that limits the scope for dialogical teaching. Despite the "recent shift of instructional paradigm from valuing and encouraging students to be silent" the tradition of the dictated lecture is difficult to change (Remedios et al., 2008, p.201). As it is often assumed the teacher knows best, and in consequence there is no perceived need for students to provide their views" (Davies et al., 2017, p.971). Yet it is essential that students are not just passive listeners, but act as sources of information, as there is evidence that students benefit greatly from dialogical talk (Remedios., et al, 2008). Despite evidence in the literature that discourse is key in the learning environment, there is also strong evidence which underlines the difficulty of creating valuable discourse in the classroom, as many students do not have the confidence nor the skill set to fully participate in dialogic discussion. The lack of oral skills' teaching in higher education may be a cause of anxiety associated with oral assessments and oral practical's. Speaking Anxiety There are many different forms of speaking anxiety, ranging from Communication Apprehension, which "refers to an individual's level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication" (Shi et al., 2015, p.125), to Public Speaking anxiety, which is a "social anxiety that arises from the real or anticipated enactment of an oral presentation" (Shi et al.,2015, p.125). Effectively, it appears that feeling anxious about presenting or talking in public "is a common experience" (Shi, et al. 2015, p.125). Overall, there are a range of sociocultural factors which contribute to PSA: "confidence in language, confidence in knowledge, previous educational experiences, and expectations of roles influenced the learners' willingness to con- tribute to the academic talk" (Engin, 2017, p. 78). Yet a common factor appears to relate to confidence - specifically is the lack of confidence that arises from the absence of oral practice. The most tangible solution is to teach students the skills they require and with which they will become more confident in public speaking.situations.