Structure and Function of Viral Immunoevasins

这项工作的重点是了解控制先天和适应性免疫系统细胞识别感染病原体（如病毒）的细胞的初始步骤的分子细节。我们的观点是，了解免疫系统识别的病毒编码分子相互作用的功能、机制、结构和进化，不仅可以更深入地了解免疫系统中一般的分子相互作用和细胞-细胞相互作用，还可以找到合理的方法来干预病毒感染。特别是，我们从生物物理和结构的角度研究了主要组织相容性复合体（MHC）编码分子大家族的代表成员。因此，我们对MHC-I分子如何分别通过NK细胞和T细胞受体与自然杀伤细胞（NK）或T淋巴细胞上的受体相互作用感兴趣。疱疹病毒家族的大DNA病毒产生模仿宿主MHC-I分子的蛋白质，作为其免疫逃避策略的一部分，我们已经指导我们的努力，以了解由小鼠巨细胞病毒（mCMV）编码的一组MHC-I（称为MHC-Iv）分子的功能，细胞表达和结构。我们分析了这些基因在不同细胞类型中转染后的表达，并确定，与经典MHC-I分子不同，病毒MHC-I分子不需要经典MHC-I分子的轻链成分、β -2微球蛋白或自肽来表达。尽管这些MHC-Iv分子中有几个在感染后早期在病毒感染的细胞表面表达，但其他几个，包括m152和m155，在细胞表面不表达，这表明它们的功能是由细胞内活动引起的。在早期的研究中，我们确定了MHC-Iv分子m144的结构，并表明它保留了MHC-I样折叠，尽管它缺乏结合肽。在过去的一年里，我们扩展了我们的研究，包括m152、m153和m157的表达、结合和结构研究。每一种分子都代表一种不同的作用模式。m152下调对T细胞或NK细胞识别至关重要的宿主分子，特别是下调宿主MHC-I分子以逃避CD8 T细胞的识别。此外，m152下调NKG2D NK细胞激活受体的配体，特别是应激诱导分子RAE-1家族。m153具有未知的功能，但在许多源自野生小鼠的mCMV菌株中序列高度保守，表明其具有保守功能。而m157已被证明是NK细胞受体Ly49I（一种在BALB/c（病毒易感）小鼠中表达的NK细胞抑制受体）和Ly49H（一种在耐药C57BL/6小鼠中表达的NK细胞激活受体）的主要配体。

The focus of this work has been to understand the molecular details that control initial steps in the recognition of cells infected with pathogens such as viruses by cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems. It is our contention that understanding the function, mechanism, structure, and evolution of the interaction of virus-encoded molecules recognized by the immune system can lead not only to a deeper understanding of molecular interactions in general and of cell-cell interactions in the immune system, but also may lead to rational approaches to intervention in virus infection. In particular, we study representative members of the large family of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-encoded molecules from a biophysical and structural perspective. Thus, we are interested in how MHC-I molecules interact with receptors on natural killer (NK) cells or on T lymphocytes through their NK and T cell receptors, respectively. Large DNA viruses of the herpesvirus family produce proteins that mimic host MHC-I molecules as part of their immunoevasive strategy, and we have directed our efforts to understand the function, cellular expression, and structure of a set of these MHC-I (referred to as MHC-Iv) molecules encoded by the mouse cytomegalovirus (mCMV). We have analyzed the expression of several of these genes after transfection in different cell types, and have established that, unlike the classical MHC-I molecules, the viral MHC-I molecules do not require either the light chain component of the classical MHC-I molecule, beta-2 microglobulin, or self-peptide for expression. Although several of these MHC-Iv molecules are expressed at the surface of virus-infected cells early after infection, several others, including m152 and m155 are not expressed well at the cell surface, suggesting that their functions result from intracellular activities. In earlier studies, we determined the structure of the MHC-Iv molecule, m144, and showed that it preserved an MHC-I like fold, though it was devoid of bound peptide. In the past year we have extended our studies to include expression, binding and structural studies of m152, m153, and m157. Each of these molecules represents a different mode of action. m152 down-regulates host molecules crucial for recognition by either T cells or NK cells, specifically it down regulates host MHC-I molecules to elude CD8 T cell recognition. In addition, m152 down-regulates ligands of the NKG2D NK cell activating receptor, in particular the RAE-1 family of stress induced molecules. m153 has an unknown function, but is highly conserved in sequence among a number of mCMV strains that derive from wild mice, suggesting a conserved function. and m157 has been shown to be a primary ligand for NK cell receptors, Ly49I, an NK cell inhibitory receptor expressed in BALB/c (virus-susceptible) mice, and Ly49H, an NK cell activation receptor expressed in resistant C57BL/6 mice. Our studies of m152 demonstrated the direct interaction of this mCMV encoded MHC-Iv protein both with host MHC-I and the stress-induced RAE-1 molecules, and we have determined the X-ray crystallographic structure of m152 in complex with its RAE-1 ligand. This structure reveals a novel adaptation of the MHC-I protein fold for binding to RAE-1, another member of the MHC-I family. Since the NK activating receptor, NKG2D also interacts with RAE-1, it was important to compare the interaction of m152 with RAE-1 with the interaction of NKG2D. Surprisingly, the sites of interaction are the same, and competition experiments confirm this. The details of the interaction of m152 with RAE-1 have been confirmed by examination of the binding of some 18 site directed mutants of RAE-1. Thus m152 provides a novel example of an mCMV-encoded MHC-I-like protein that binds two different classes of MHC-I-like proteins. The mCMV protein m153 provides another unique example of the varied functions of mCMV MHC-Iv molecules. Although the precise function of m153 is not known, we have explored this extensively using a reporter cell system, in which m153 expressing cells become fluorescent on ligation of their surface expressed m153 by cells bearing an m153 ligand. A number of murine cell lines from various origins were screened with these reporter cells, but none stimulated the production of GFP. Freshly isolated spleen cells and in particular CD11c+ dendritic cells (DC) are particularly potent in activation the indicator cells. Further fractionation of the spleen cell populations indicate that CD11c+ dendritic cells (DC) are the most potent in activating the indicator cells. Several complementary approaches are now underway to identify the ligand(s) of m153 expressed on DC: staining and competition for staining of known DC markers with an m153 tetramer both by flow cytometry and by confocal microscopy; antibody blocking of the reporter cell assay; subfractionation of the DC population that carries the stimulatory ligand; mass spectrometric identification of molecules that pull down from DC lysates with the m153 tetramer; and screening of a cDNA expression library generated from DC. The consistent finding, that m153, an early mCMV encoded cell surface molecule, engages a molecule expressed at the surface of DCs, is itself a provocative finding. mCMV is known to replicate in epithelial cells as well as DC, and we hypothesize that one of the functions of m153 is to promote the infectious spreading of mCMV virus particles to DCs as a further site for secondary replication. Our studies of the function of m153 have been complemented by the determination of the crystallographic structure of this molecule, which has been solved and refined to 2.4 Angstrom resolution. The most striking feature of this new MHC-like structure is that the molecule forms a stable head to tail homodimer. To confirm the dimerization interface observed in the crystal structure of m153 we have analyzed a number of interface mutants, confirming the site of dimerization. The biological function of m153 is unknown. Another member of the mCMV MHC-Iv family of molecules is m157, a glycoprotein expressed at the cell surface early in mCMV infection. Previous studies in other laboratories have identified both the NK cell lectin-like receptors Ly49I and Ly49H as ligands for m157. More importantly, Ly49H (expressed inC57BL/6 mice) has been shown to provide the basis of resistance to viral infection. Ly49I (the NK inhibitory receptor expressed in BALB/c may also contribute to viral susceptibility. Although the three-dimensional structure of m157 has been determined by the Garcia group, no report of m157 in complex with either Ly49I or Ly49H has been reported. This is an important and relevant problem because it addresses the issues of MHC-Iv evolution and function. We have addressed this question by engineering Ly49H and Ly49I and purifying m157 expressed in an insect cell system Surface Plasmon Resonance binding studies confirm that this recombinant m157 binds specifically to both Ly49H and Ly49I with modest affinity. Based on these binding studies, we have set up crystallization screens and have identified condition under which m157/Ly49I complexes form crystals. At the present time the best crystals have diffracted to 8 , not yet adequate for a molecular structure determination. However, additional conditions are being explored and we expect to obtain crystals of better quality. Efforts are also underway to explore the structural basis of the interaction of additional viral MHC-I-like molecules with their respective cellular ligands. mCMV m145 and m155 and ligands MULT1 and H60 have been expressed and purified, and we have determined the structure of MULT1 and expect to have the m145/MULT1 complex.