What is it to pick up an upside-down cup? The dynamic interaction between actor, environment, and task in the emergence of second-order planning for object manipulation

问题。抓住物体的方式可以用来推断行动是如何计划的。对象属性(例如，大小)在第一级规划中被考虑；而第二级规划的特征在于对次要任务需求(例如，对象使用)的预期。通常被称为终态舒适(ESC)效应，成年人通常采取行动以确保舒适的最终姿势。儿童表现出ESC的减少的倾向被归因于不成熟的二级计划能力；然而，文献中不一致的报告限制了对发展过程的理解。挑战。为什么儿童在一些研究中表现出ESC，而在另一些研究中却没有，这一问题尚未得到解决。一种建议是，儿童对舒适度的感知与成人不同；因此，用观察性措施衡量儿童的ESC本身可能不能捕捉到二级规划的发展。这项拟议的研究将使用观测和运动学方法来提供更详细的见解。早期的工作侧重于随年龄的变化，并以信息处理的观点为指导。建议的研究考虑了动态系统的观点。由于制约物体操纵的因素很多，在二阶物体操纵的发展中，有必要考虑参与者(即生理和心理特征)、环境(即参与者周围的外力)和任务(即任务的目标和规则以及所使用的设备)之间的动态相互作用。目标。这项拟议的研究将调查在传统的物体操纵任务(杯子、棒运输和手柄旋转任务)中，演员的特征(认知和运动功能、手的大小和手臂长度)与环境(对象的大小和位置)之间的交互作用。这项研究旨在破译二级计划行为是如何在从童年到成年的发展过程中发生变化的。方法：研究方法。实验将包括神经型儿童和成人。观察数据(二级规划、手部选择)和运动学(3D运动跟踪)数据将在杯子、棒材运输和手柄旋转任务中收集。目标1中的研究将纵向跟踪绩效。在一系列横断面调查中，目标2将研究物体大小和手大小之间的交互作用，目标3将研究物体位置、臂长和手偏好之间的交互作用。将评估所有参与者的运动熟练程度、执行功能和利手，以及人口统计学(性别、年龄)和人体测量(手大小、手臂长度)。冲击力。这项工作将提供基本的见解；不一致的报告将被理清，并将创造关于物体操纵的伸展到抓取的神经典型发展的知识。研究结果还将具有实际意义(例如，运动障碍儿童的职业治疗)。

Issue. The way an object is grasped can be used to infer how the action was planned. Object properties (e.g., size) are considered in first-order planning; whereas second-order planning is characterized by the anticipation of secondary task demands (e.g., object use). Often referred to as the end-state comfort (ESC) effect, adults generally act to ensure a comfortable final posture. A reduced tendency for children to demonstrate ESC has been attributed to immature second-order planning abilities; however, inconsistent reports in the literature limit understanding of the course of development. Challenge. Why children display ESC in some studies, but not others, has yet to be resolved. One suggestion is that children perceive comfort differently than adults; therefore, measuring ESC in children with observational measures may not capture the development of second-order planning, per se. The proposed research will use observational and kinematic measures to provide more detailed insights. Earlier work focused on changes with age and was guided by an information processing perspective. The proposed research considers the Dynamic Systems perspective. As many factors constrain object manipulation, it is necessary to consider the dynamic interaction between actor (i.e., physical and psychological characteristics), environment (i.e., external forces surrounding the actor), and task (i.e., goals and rules of the task and equipment used) in the development of second-order object manipulation. Objectives. The proposed research will investigate interactions between characteristics of the actor (cognitive and motor function, hand size and arm length) and environment (object size and location) in traditional object manipulation tasks (cup, bar-transport, and handle-rotation tasks). This research aims to decipher how second-order planning behaviours change over the course of development from childhood to young adulthood. Methods. Experiments will include neurotypical children and adults. Observational (second-order planning, hand selection) and kinematic (3D motion tracking) data will be collected in cup, bar-transport, and handle-rotation tasks. Research in Objective 1 will track performance longitudinally. Over a series of cross-sectional investigations, Objective 2 will investigate the interaction between object size and hand size, and Objective 3 will examine interactions between object location, arm length, and hand preference. Motor proficiency, executive function, and handedness will be assessed in all participants, along with demographic (sex, age) and anthropometric (hand size, arm length) measures. Impact. This work will offer fundamental insights; inconsistent reports will be disentangled, and knowledge of the neurotypical development of reach-to-grasp for object manipulation will be created. Findings will also have practical implications (e.g., occupational therapy for children with motor difficulties).