Enterococci as Indicators of Environmental Fecal Contamination
Enterococci as Indicators of Environmental Fecal Contamination
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肠球菌作为环境粪便污染的指标
DOI：
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发表时间：
2014
期刊：
影响因子：
--
通讯作者：
Lauren M. Sassoubre
中科院分区：
文献类型：
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作者：
A. Boehm;Lauren M. Sassoubre
肠球菌在人类粪便中以高浓度发现，通常在每克湿重104至106个细菌之间（莱顿，沃尔特斯，拉姆，& Boehm，2010; Slanetz & Bartley，1957; Zubrzycki & Spaulding，1962）;另见肠球菌多样性，自然起源和肠道定植）。虽然肠球菌通常占不到植物群的1%（Tendolkar，Baghdayan，& Shankar，2003），但它们通常存在于粪便聚生体中，但数量超过其他细菌，包括大肠杆菌、梭菌和拟杆菌目（Zubrzycki & Spaulding，1962）。由于肠球菌在人类粪便中的普遍存在和在环境中的持久性，肠球菌已被用作人类粪便污染的指示剂。最近，它们在人手上的密度已被用作手部卫生的指标。然而，使用肠球菌作为人类粪便污染或污染的指标可能存在问题，因为肠球菌也存在于动物粪便中（Harwood，Whitlock，& Withington，2000;莱顿，Walters，Lam，& Boehm，2010），土壤（Byappanahalli & Fujioka，2004;后藤& Yan，2011），以及植物（Byappanahalli、Shively、内弗斯、Sadowsky和惠特曼，2003年; Imamura、Thompson、Boehm和Jay，2011年; Muller、Ulrich、Ott和Muller，2001年）。尽管关于这种情况在自然界中发生的程度存在争议，但有证据表明肠球菌能够在肠外环境中复制，例如在海滩的沙子上（Bahirathan，Puente，& Seyfried，1998; Zubrzycki & Spaulding，1962）和含有海带的水中（Byappanahalli，Shively，内弗斯，Sadowsky，&惠特曼，2003; Imamura，Thompson，Boehm，& Jay，2011）和浮游生物（Mote，Turner，& Lipp，2012）。鉴定人类特异性肠球菌种或基因型有助于区分人类粪便污染与其他环境来源的微生物。一些数据表明，屎肠球菌和粪肠球菌在人类粪便中可能比其他肠球菌种类更普遍，而粪黄肠球菌和蒙氏肠球菌在环境水库中可能更丰富（如植物）比其他物种（Bahirathan，Puente，& Seyfried，1998; Ferguson，摩尔，Getrich，& Zhowandai，2005;惠勒，Hartel，戈弗雷，Hill，& Segars，2002）。然而，已经从人粪便中分离出许多种肠球菌（莱顿、沃尔特斯、拉姆和博姆，2010年）;肠球菌多样性、自然起源和肠道定殖），因此很难得出单一的宿主特异性指标。有人认为E.含有肠球菌表面蛋白（esp）基因的屎肠球菌可能是人类特异性的（Scott，Jenkins，Lukasik，& Rose，2005），但含有esp的E.屎肠球菌也可以在选择的动物宿主中发现（莱顿，Walters，& Boehm，2009;惠特曼，Przybyla-Kelly，Shively，& Byappanahalli，2007）。然而，多重耐药肠球菌菌株已成为医院获得性感染的主要原因（Tendolkar，Baghdayan，& Shankar，2003）。万古霉素抗性肠球菌是特别重要的病原体（Willems等人，2005），含ESP的E. faecalis（Shankar，Baghdayan，Huycke，Lindahl，& Gilmore，1999）和E.屎囊（Willems，等，2001），以及其他类型的E.粪肠球菌E.（Wisplinghoff，Bischoff，Tallent，Seifert，Wenzel，& Edmond，2004）.据估计，美国每年有80万例肠球菌感染，每年增加5亿美元的医疗费用（Tendolkar，Baghdayan和Shankar，2003）。因此，环境中和手上的肠球菌的存在可能具有重要的直接健康影响。
Enterococci are found in high concentrations in human feces, usually between 104 and 106 bacteria per gram wet weight (Layton, Walters, Lam, & Boehm, 2010; Slanetz & Bartley, 1957; Zubrzycki & Spaulding, 1962); see also Enterococcus Diversity, Origins in Nature, and Gut Colonization). Although enterococci usually represent less than 1% of the flora (Tendolkar, Baghdayan, & Shankar, 2003), they are usually present in the fecal consortium, but are outnumbered by other bacteria, including Escherichia coli, clostridia, and the Bacteroidales (Zubrzycki & Spaulding, 1962). Due to their ubiquity in human feces and persistence in the environment, enterococci have been adopted as indicators of human fecal pollution in water. More recently, their densities on human hands have been used as indicators of hand hygiene. The use of enterococci as indicators of human fecal pollution or contamination can be problematic, however, because enterococci are also found in animal feces (Harwood, Whitlock, & Withington, 2000; Layton, Walters, Lam, & Boehm, 2010), in soils (Byappanahalli & Fujioka, 2004; Goto & Yan, 2011), and on plants (Byappanahalli, Shively, Nevers, Sadowsky, & Whitman, 2003; Imamura, Thompson, Boehm, & Jay, 2011; Muller, Ulrich, Ott, & Muller, 2001). Although there is debate about the extent to which this happens in nature, there is evidence that enterococci are capable of replicating in extra-enteric environments, such as on beach sands (Bahirathan, Puente, & Seyfried, 1998; Zubrzycki & Spaulding, 1962) and in water containing kelp (Byappanahalli, Shively, Nevers, Sadowsky, & Whitman, 2003; Imamura, Thompson, Boehm, & Jay, 2011) and plankton (Mote, Turner, & Lipp, 2012). Identification of human-specific enterococcal species or genotypes could aid in the discrimination of human fecal contamination from other environmental sources of the organisms. Some data suggest that Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis may be more prevalent in human feces than other enterococcal species, while Enterococcus casseliflavus and Enterococcus mundtii may be more abundant in environmental reservoirs (such as on plants) than other species (Bahirathan, Puente, & Seyfried, 1998; Ferguson, Moore, Getrich, & Zhowandai, 2005; Wheeler, Hartel, Godfrey, Hill, & Segars, 2002). However, a number of species of Enterococcus have been isolated from human feces (Layton, Walters, Lam, & Boehm, 2010); Enterococcus Diversity, Origins in Nature, and Gut Colonization), so it will be difficult to derive a single host-specific indicator. It has been suggested that E. faecium that contains the enterococcal surface protein (esp) gene may be human-specific (Scott, Jenkins, Lukasik, & Rose, 2005), but esp-containing E. faecium can also be found in select animal hosts (Layton, Walters, & Boehm, 2009; Whitman, Przybyla-Kelly, Shively, & Byappanahalli, 2007).Fecal enterococci from the GI tract consortia of healthy humans are generally not virulent. Nevertheless, multidrug-resistant Enterococcus strains have emerged as leading causes of hospital-acquired infections (Tendolkar, Baghdayan, & Shankar, 2003). Vancomycin-resistant enterococci are particularly important pathogens (Willems, et al., 2005), as are esp-containing E. faecalis (Shankar, Baghdayan, Huycke, Lindahl, & Gilmore, 1999) and E. faecium (Willems, et al., 2001), as well as other types of E. faecalis and E. faecium (Wisplinghoff, Bischoff, Tallent, Seifert, Wenzel, & Edmond, 2004). It is estimated that there are 800,000 cases of enterococcal infection in the US each year, adding $500,000,000 to annual healthcare costs (Tendolkar, Baghdayan, & Shankar, 2003). Therefore, the presence of enterococci in the environment and on hands may have important direct health implications.
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作者：
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影响因子：
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作者：
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