Behavioral Responses of Elk to Wolves: Proximate Triggers, Response Strategies, Physiological Costs and Demographic Consequences.

麋鹿对狼的行为反应：近因触发、反应策略、生理代价和人口统计学后果捕食对猎物种群的直接影响可以通过记录猎物被杀的速度来衡量。 除了这种直接影响，最近的研究表明，捕食者可以对猎物种群产生强烈的间接影响。 这些间接影响是由反捕食者反应的成本引起的。 当猎物改变分组模式、栖息地选择和行为时，它们通常会付出能量或生理代价。 PI将收集数据以：（a）识别和了解麋鹿对狼捕食风险的空间和时间变化的行为反应，（B）使用能量、生理和人口统计数据测量这些反应的成本，以及（c）将这些成本与麋鹿繁殖、生存和人口增长的变化联系起来。具体目标是：1.测试几个关于反捕食者行为对风险变化的反应方式的假设，考虑时间和空间的变化。 2.测试麋鹿如何评估风险，超越简单的存在/不存在狼，考虑捕食者的特征，猎物的特征，以及它们相遇的环境特征。 3.量化捕食者对摄食行为、饮食、营养和条件的反应的后果。 4.量化捕食和反捕食行为对生存和繁殖的影响，包括对麋鹿怀孕率的可能影响。该研究项目将提供综合研究生培训，本科生的研究机会，当地公立学校的教育活动，以及MSU美国印第安人研究机会计划（本科生和高中实习生）的学生实习机会。在受人类影响的地区维持大型哺乳动物的种群是对发达景观的管理和保护的一个挑战，该项目与保护和管理问题具有明确和直接的相关性。麋鹿在黄石生态系统中具有重要的生态、经济和社会意义。狼是濒危物种，该项目将产生大量关于联邦、州和私人土地上麋鹿动态的数据。

AbstractCreel IOB-0642393Behavioral responses of elk to wolves: proximate triggers, response strategies, physiological costs and demographic consequences.The direct effect of predation on prey populations can be measured by recording the rate at which prey animals are killed. In addition to this direct effect, recent research indicates that predators can have strong indirect effects on prey populations. These indirect effects are caused by the costs of antipredator responses. When prey alter patterns of grouping, habitat selection, and behavior, they often incur energetic or physiological costs. The PI will collect data to: (a) identify and understand the behavioral responses of elk to spatial and temporal variation in the risk of predation by wolves, (b) measure the costs of these responses using energetic, physiological and demographic data, and (c) relate these costs to changes in elk reproduction, survival and population growth. The specific goals are to: 1. Test several hypotheses about the ways that antipredator behavior responds to variation in risk, considering variation in both time and space. 2. Test how elk assess risk, beyond the simple presence/absence of wolves, considering characteristics of predators, characteristics of prey, and characteristics of the environment in which they meet. 3. Quantify the consequences of antipredator responses for feeding behavior, diet, and nutrition and condition. 4. Quantify the impacts of predation and antipredator behavior on survival and reproduction, including likely effects on elk pregnancy rates. The research project will provide integrative graduate training, research opportunities for undergraduates, educational activities at the local public schools, as well as internship opportunities to students in the MSU American Indian Research Opportunities program (undergraduates and high school interns). Maintaining populations of large mammals in areas affected by humans is a challenge to management and conservation in developed landscapes, and this project has clear and immediate relevance to conservation and management issues. Elk have great ecological, economic and sociological importance in the Yellowstone Ecosystem. The wolf is an endangered species, and this project will generate considerable data on wolf-elk dynamics on federal, state and private land.