Collaborative Research: The Embeddedness of Indirect and Generalized Reciprocity

SES-1626023 David Melamed俄亥俄州立大学SES-1626056南卡罗来纳州哥伦比亚州布伦特·辛普森大学广义交换系统是指物质、社会或其他形式的支持在三个或更多参与者(个人、组织和国家)之间单方面流动的系统。研究人员指出，普遍的交换制度是人类道德演变和广泛的社会团结的基础。这是因为，与直接交换关系不同，直接交换关系往往将参与者与更广泛的群体或网络区分开来，而广义交换将参与者嵌入到更大的关系结构中。先前的研究已经确定了广义交换制度的两个主要基础：广义互惠是指接受利益或帮助的行为者通过帮助第三方(你帮助她是因为我帮助了你)来“向前支付”；而间接互惠是指向另一个行为者提供好处的行为者随后得到了第三方的帮助(他帮助我是因为我帮助了你)。这两种类型都可以构成广义交换制度的基础，但它们基于非常不同的机制，广义互惠源于接受帮助所产生的感激之情，间接互惠基于维持良好或“亲社会”声誉的前景。重要的是，几乎所有先前的工作都独立地处理了这两个过程。因此，对一系列基本问题缺乏答案：如果是这两个进程中的任何一个，哪个进程才是广义交易所体系中更坚实的合作基础？每种类型的结构如何促进(或削弱)嵌入其中的参与者的亲社会动机？与系统外的陌生人相比，每种类型的结构如何影响对广义交易所系统内的人的信任以及与之的合作？这些过程如何结合在一起，影响现实世界中的亲社会和团结？这些问题具有很大的社会重要性(因为它们关注的是与“邻居”和陌生人的亲社会性)，并且具有广泛的相关性(从最小的群体到全球社区的潜在应用)。因此，这项研究的见解可能会产生可行的处方，以增加亲社会性，并促进日益分化的人口成员之间的融合、凝聚力和团结。该研究试图完成五个广泛的研究目标：i)概述论证和两个受控实验，旨在测试广义和间接互惠在支持广义交换系统中的合作方面的相对和交互能力，ii)概述论据和实验测试广义和间接互惠系统在促进对陌生人的亲社会动机和行为方面的相对能力，即对那些不在广义交换系统中的人，iii)使用受控实验室实验和基于代理的模型来建立，与将广义互惠和间接互惠视为独立系统的现有工作不同，这两个过程被更准确(和充分)地视为集成系统的一部分，Iv)考察不同的社会网络结构如何影响广义交换系统中的亲社会行为，以及v)使用关于民族国家之间援助流动的大型数据集来检验我们的论点的预测。因此，这项研究的总体目标是解决一个具有广泛跨学科重要性的基础性研究问题，使用多种方法，包括实验室实验、基于代理人的模型和关于国际援助的宏观数据。

SES-1626023David MelamedOhio State UniversitySES-1626056Brent SimpsonUniversity of South Carolina ColumbiaGeneralized exchange systems are those where material, social, or other forms of support flow unilaterally between three or more actors (individuals, organizations, and nations). Researchers have noted that generalized exchange systems are the basis for the evolution of human morality and widespread social solidarity. This is because, unlike direct exchange relationships, which tend to set those involved apart from a broader group or network, generalized exchange embeds actors in a much larger structure of relations. Prior research has identified two primary bases for generalized exchange systems: Generalized reciprocity occurs when an actor who receives benefits or help "pays it forward" by helping a third party (you help her because I helped you) while indirect reciprocity occurs when an actor who provides benefits to another is subsequently helped by a third party (he helps me because I helped you). Either type could form the basis of generalized exchange systems but they are based on very different mechanisms, with generalized reciprocity stemming from the gratitude that one experiences as a consequence of receiving help and indirect reciprocity based on the prospect of maintaining a good, or "prosocial" reputation. Importantly, almost all prior work has addressed these two processes independently. As a consequence, there is a lack answers to a range of fundamental questions: Which, if either process, is a stronger basis of cooperation in generalized exchange systems? How does each type of structure promote (or undermine) prosocial motivations of actors embedded within them? How does each type of structure impact trust towards - and cooperation with - those within the generalized exchange system versus those outside the system, i.e., strangers? And how do the processes combine to impact prosociality and solidarity in the real world? These questions are of great societal importance (as they focus on prosociality both with "neighbors" and strangers) and of broad relevance (with potential applications from the smallest groups to global communities). Insights from the research could therefore yield actionable prescriptions for increasing prosociality as well as facilitating integration, cohesion, and solidarity among members of an increasingly differentiated population. The research seeks to accomplish five broad research objectives: i) Outline arguments and two controlled experiments designed to test the relative and interactive power of generalized and indirect reciprocity for supporting cooperation in generalized exchange systems, ii) Outline arguments and an experimental test of the relative power of generalized versus indirect reciprocity systems in promoting prosocial motivations and behaviors towards strangers, i.e., towards those outside of the generalized exchange system, iii) Use controlled laboratory experiments and agent-based models to establish that, in contrast to prior work that has viewed generalized and indirect reciprocity as separate systems, the two processes are more accurately (and fruitfully) viewed as parts of an integrated system, iv) Examine how different social network structures affect prosocial behaviors in generalized exchange systems, and v) Test predictions from our arguments with a large dataset on the flow of aid between nation-states. Thus, the overarching goal of this research is to tackle a fundamental research problem, of broad interdisciplinary importance, using multiple methods, including laboratory experiments, agent-based models, and macro-level data on international aid.